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Citing Sources

APA Style

APA is a set of stylistic guidelines for standardizing and clarifying scholarly and scientific papers. If you understand the purpose and rules of the APA style, then you know the structure of any APA paper. Originally created in 1929, the APA style has been updated multiple times in the ensuing decades, most recently with its 7th edition in 2019*.

APA is used across the social sciences and sees common use in nursing, business, economics, and some engineering fields. APA is designed for scholarship: it expects most papers to be serious, peer-reviewed work in a particular field drawing material from other peer-reviewed articles in turn. Student papers are designed to imitate these expectations to prepare student writers for the norms of the fields they may one day be publishing in.

*(Because the new edition is recent, not every database or source is up to date. That means you can’t rely on a source’s embedded citation being up to date, or the rules you learned even only a few years still being accurate. That makes it all the more important to be careful with our sources, and to not rely on online citation generators too much.)

Differences Between APA 6 & 7

	APA 6 (Old)	APA 7 (New)
In-Text Citations	In-text citations with 3-5 authors list all authors on the first citation.	Any in-text citation with 3 or more authors automatically uses ([first author name] et al.)
Direct Quotes	No guidelines on direct quotes from audiovisual work.	Direct quotes from audiovisual work include author name, publication date, and timestamp of the quote’s beginning.
Singular Pronouns	No rules on singular “they” pronoun.	Singular “they” pronoun encouraged for persons who use “they” as their preferred pronoun, or persons for whom gender is unknown or irrelevant.
Gendered Pronouns	No guidance on gendered noun/pronoun usage.	Always use individuals’ preferred names and pronouns, even if they differ from those used on official documents or at the time of publication.
Highlighting Linguistic Examples	Italics used to highlight linguistic examples.	Quotation marks used to highlight linguistic examples.
Font Choice	Times New Roman 12-point font is the preferred typeface.	Accepts a variety of serif and sans serif fonts, with emphasis on accessibility to the reader.

Structure

Font

You want fonts that are legible, widely available, and include uncommon characters like math symbols or Greek letters (this guarantees that formulas and calculations show up). Most of the common fonts such as Arial, Calibri, Georgia, and Times New Roman all serve this purpose. The goal is to make the writing easy to access and easy to read. You’ll also want to keep the font size to the font’s most common form: usually 10-12 point.

(Special types of text sometimes have their own rules: text within figure images should be sans serif type fonts to maximize readability on screens and sized 8-14; computer code should be a monospace type font; footnotes should be in the primary font, but are allowed to be smaller in size or have different spacing.)

For most student papers, the page number in the upper right corner is all you need to include in the header. However, professional papers also require a running head in the upper left corner—an all caps, short (50 characters or less) version of the title.

Line Spacing

Double spacing with no extra spaces between lines is the rule for APA papers. Title pages have extra spaces between the title and byline, or before the author note (when it has an author note). Footnotes, tables, figures, and displaced equations also have spacing exceptions.

Spacing Expectations

Title page: insert a double-spaced blank between the title and byline. If this is a professional paper, add another double-spaced blank line above the author note.

Words within figures or tables may be single, one-and-a-half, or double spaced, depending on what works best for the layout. Figure/Table number, title, and notes are double-spaced as normal. Equations are allowed to have triple or quadruple spacing before or after a displayed equation.

Margins

1-inch margins. Real simple there.

Paragraphs

Text should be aligned along the left margin and not justified. The first line of a paragraph should be indented .5 inch from the margin—use the tab button, not space bar for this.

(There are some exceptions, such as for title pages, headings, block quotations, tables and figures, and appendices. The biggest ones to remember are for Abstracts, which have no indentation on the first line, and Reference Lists, that have a .5 inch hanging indent—that is, the first line of each reference isn’t indented, but the other lines are.)

Title Page

The Title Page is an introductory page that includes details such as the title of the paper and author’s name. There are some extra details as well, depending on if this is a professional or student paper. Student papers should also include course number and name, instructor name, and assignment due date. Professional papers should also include an author note.

Student Title Page Example

Professional Title Page Example

Abstract

The Abstract is a concise summary of the paper, a single paragraph and no more than 250 words. Make sure to include key details such as paper topic, research questions, methods, results, and conclusions. It may also include a secondary, italicized paragraph that lists keywords you want to identify your paper for research databases.

Main Body

The Main Body contains the main material of the paper and is formatted in the usual formatting. Many APA Style papers include additional subsections. Common subsections include an Introduction, which presents a topic and issue, as well as any hypothesis the paper is testing; a Method section that describes in detail the process of the study or experiment; a Results section that shows the quantitative data resulting from the study, and a Discussion section that discusses meaning and possible importance of the results. Not all APA papers follow this breakdown for the Main Body. Many APA papers use heading structures unique to their subject, course, or purpose.

Be careful not to mix up similar sections! The Abstract is an overall summary to explain the trajectory of your paper in brief, while the Introduction is a properly detailed explanation of your topic and purpose for people reading the paper in full. Similarly, the Results section only shows the raw data of your findings, while Discussion interprets and draws conclusions from them.

APA Structure Example

Reference List

The Reference List is a full list of sources you used to create your paper. This includes resources you quoted or cited, but also any sources that provided direct information to your piece, even if you did not directly cite them. This is a simple, alphabetical list, formatted with a hanging indent. Check the References section for more details on how to construct references and to see examples.

Style

As a general rule, writing in APA strives to be understandable, consistent, and specific. What rules there are for writing and presentation exist to either ensure as many readers as possible easily understand you, or that writing conventions are specific across academic papers, journals, and other discourse. APA writing also strives to be objective and bias-free in its language, both to present more factually and to avoid excluding or discriminating against any reader or group. Most APA style conventions are just good writing practices, but there are some specific conventions to follow.

Voice & Tense

Unless unavoidable or specifically emphasizing the subject, use of active voice (x does y) rather than passive voice (y happened) in APA. Note the examples:

Active Voice: We conducted the experiment in Dr. Smith’s lab.

Passive Voice: The experiment was conducted in Dr. Smith’s lab.

APA also recommends using the past tense when referring to actions that took place at a specific time in the past. This includes referring to other scholars’ research or your own research and results.

Correct: Goodson (2012) developed a similar methodology.

Incorrect: Goodson (2012) presents a similar methodology.

Numerals

As a general rule, write out zero through nine as numbers, and numerals for numbers 10 and above. Exceptions exist for both, as listed below.

Times you should always write a number as words:

numbers that begin a sentence, title, or heading;
common fractions (one half, two-thirds, seven eighths);
universally accepted phrases (Twelve Apostles).

Times you should always write a number as a numeral:

numbers preceding a unit of measure (3 cm, 5-mg dose);
uncommon fractions or decimals (1.5, 2.27);
numbers serving a mathematical function (multiplied by 2, divided by 8);
percentages (4%, 10%-25%);
ratios (2:1 ratio);
times and dates (3 min, 10 years, 12:30 a.m.);
age (5 years old);
points and scales on a scale (3-point scale);
precise sums of money ($4, $200);
numerals as numbers (numeral 8 on a keyboard).

Use commas between groups of three digits for numbers 1,000 or more.

Citations & Quotes

Citing a source in APA uses a parenthetical, where the reference is listed in parenthesis afterwards. As the baseline, a parenthetical needs to include the author’s last name and the date of the source’s publication (ex. Smith, 2021). If you’re already mentioning the author in the text, the parenthetical only needs to include the date. Ex. These trends were also supported in the findings of Smith (2021), who found similar results in their own studies of the subject.

Most citations will be for paraphrases, where you draw on a source’s findings or ideas but put it into your own words. Direct quotes, while generally discouraged for APA (in most situations you should be interested in incorporating a source’s information, not borrowing its phrasing), should have an additional level of detail to help people find the specific quotation. For text sources, this includes a page number at the end of the parenthetical (García Márquez, 1967, p. 331-332). For audiovisual sources like videos, add the timestamp of the beginning of the quote onto the end (Astley, 1987, 0:43).

Block Quotes in APA

For those times when you have to quote a large amount of text (anything over 40 words or 4 lines of quotation), quotes take on a special formatting. You lead into the quote with a colon, then indent a half inch from the left margin. Starting with a new line, you’ll write without the quotation marks, with the parenthetical coming after the final punctuation.

Example:

Brandt (1998), however, defines a “literacy sponsor” as a sort of “power broker” rather than as a benign benefactor:

Sponsors, as I have come to think of them, are any agents, local or distant, concrete or abstract, who enable, support, teach, model as well as recruit, regulate, suppress, or withhold literacy—and gain advantage by it in some way. Just as the ages of radio and television accustom us to having programs brought to us by various commercial sponsors, it is useful to think about who or what underwrites occasions of literacy learning and use. (p. 46)

Unusual Citations

Two Authors

For sources with two authors, include both names with an ampersand.

Example:

Child neglect cases spiked during phases where the supply of crack and crystal meth increased (Jack & Ang, 2006)

Three or More Authors

For sources with three or more authors, include the primary author’s name plus the term et al. (basically an old Latin way to say & co.).

Example:

Mann et al. (2007) found that patients respond well to hydrotherapy.

Unknown Author

For sources with an unknown author, use the title of the source or (if the title is particularly long), the first words of the title. It the title is a book, make sure to italicize it, and put the title of short works in quotation marks.

Example:

The Pew Survey found that just 20% of Americans think federal government programs are run well (“Beyond Distrust”, 2015).

In the example above, the article’s full title is “Beyond Distrust: How Americans View Their Government.”

Multiple Sources in a Single Parenthetical

If you're citing multiple sources in a single parenthetical, order them alphabetically and separate them with a semicolon. If the author is the same, chronologically separate the dates via commas: (Lee 1992, 2002).

Example:

Several studies (Algood, 2004; Sullivan & Lowe, 2003) indicated that severe dehydration, prior to the event, worsened outcomes for stroke victims.

Secondary Source

While you want to find the primary source (the original source) whenever possible, there are some special rules if you’re citing a secondary source. For this, you’ll cite the original source and date first, with an “as cited in” of the secondary source you found the primary source in.

Example:

This connotation has been well documented in earlier studies of the field as well (Jones, 1971, as cited in Smith et al., 2020).

References

The reference list shows a complete list of material you directly drew your material from, arranged to make it as clear as possible where you are getting your information and where someone who wanted to double check your sources can do so.

The reference list is alphabetically listed (by first author’s last name, or if no author is known, by title or organization name), and formatted with a .5 inch hanging indent. Authors are listed by last name, first initial, with up to 20 being listed out on the reference. If listing more than one reference by the same primary author, list by publication date, with the earliest publication first.

If you are unable to verify a publication date, use (n.d.) after the author’s name.
If the source is online and has a DOI (Digital Object Identifier), include that at the end as a URL (https://doi.org/###).
If a source is online, has no DOI, and is outside of an online database or other obstacle (i.e. a normal website outside any paywalls), include the URL at the end of the reference.
For online articles without page numbers, don’t include page numbers. Remember that online versions of books and journal articles often retain their page numbers on their .pdf version, so check there rather than the .html version alone before foregoing page numbers.

If there is a group responsible for the page, use the group name instead.

Template

Group Name (Year, Month Date). Article/Page Name. URL

Example

Walden University (2020, July 14). APA 6 & 7 Comparison Tables.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/apa/7transition/comparison

If you don’t have a group name either, use the article or page name alone.

Template

Article/Page Name. (Year, Month Date). URL

Example

Beyond distrust: How Americans view their Government. (2015, November 23). http://www.people-press.org/

Wikipedia Article

Template

Title of article. (Year, Month Day). In Wikipedia. URL of archived version.

Example

Philosophy. (2010, October 19). In Wikipedia.

https://web.archive.org/web/20101019052036/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy

Reference List Example

FAQs

What are the basic rules for citing another paper?

Make sure that any idea or finding you draw from another paper cites, either in text or in parentheticals, the author’s name and date of publication. This could all be in the parenthesis (Smith, 2021), or if you already mention the author, split between the text and the parenthesis – according to the findings of Smith (2021). For more details on citing, check out the citation section of this guide.

When and how do I directly quote in APA?

As a broad rule, keep direct quotes to a minimum in APA – we're interested in the content itself and how it pertains to your work, not the specific wording. In other words, most the time it’ll be in your interest to fit the data into your own words, contextualize it to your needs and purpose.

When you do use a direct citation, you’ll need to use an expanded parenthetical, making sure to include not only the author's name and publication date, but the page you’re referencing (Smith, 2021, p. 435). For more details on quotes, and how to use quotes of 40 words or more, check out the block quote section of this guide.

The information I need to cite is from a work my source is only citing. What do I do?

If possible, try to find the original source, so you can simply cite or quote that directly. If you’re unable to find the original, you’ll need to use a special parenthetical citation that lists both the original and the intermediary source – (Jones, 1971, as cited in Smith et al., 2020). For more details, check out the unusual citations section of this guide.

I’m writing a paper as a student. Are there different requirements than for a professional paper?

There are! As of APA 7, you won’t need an author note on your title page, or a running head at the top of your pages. You’ll also want to include some institutional information (your school, your professor, your course) in your title page’s byline. For more details on what that looks like, check out the student title page example from this guide.

Resources

APA Style Website

APA In-Text Citations

APA Paper Format

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition (2020)

Purdue - Changes in the 7th Edition

Purdue - APA 7 Sample Papers

Purdue - APA PowerPoint Presentation

Page Reference List

American Psychological Association. (2019, October). About APA Style. https://apastyle.apa.org/about-apa-style

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

CHOICE Media Channel. (2020, September 11). A Step By Step Guide for APA Style Student Papers [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.YouTube.com/watch?v=Ae6mQBUVqVE&t=1s

Purdue University Online Writing Lab (n.d.). APA Style Introduction.

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_style_introduction.html

Walden University. (2020, July 14). APA 6 & 7 Comparison Tables.

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/apa/7transition/comparison

Avoiding Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, University of Arkansas students need to understand the expectations for writing with integrity and to develop the skills needed to integrate sources and provide attribution.

Plagiarism as a General Concept

Plagiarism is the act of taking the ideas or writing of someone else and passing them off as one’s own. In the university setting, the theft of language and ideas is an especially serious offense.

University of Arkansas Regulations

The University of Arkansas expects students to maintain a high level of academic integrity. We encourage students to visit the Academic Initiatives and Integrity site to read the university’s Integrity Policy and Sanction Rubric and to understand how plagiarism is defined on campus. We want highlight the important sections of the Rubric that address plagiarism.

Do your own work. The Sanction Rubric says submitting work prepared by others is a violation: “Submitting as one’s own any theme, report, term paper, essay, computer program, speech, painting, drawing, sculpture, or other written or creative work or project of any nature prepared totally or in large measure by another /plagiarizing, in work completed for a class assignment, when that copying/plagiarizing constitutes less than 10% of the assignment and is a second offense, or when that copying/plagiarizing constitutes 10% or more of the assignment.”
Paraphrase, quote, and cite sources properly. The Sanction Rubric describes all of the following as violations: “Submitting as one’s own work or plagiarizing is the offering as one’s own work, the words, ideas, or arguments of another person or using the work of another without appropriate attribution by quotation, reference, or footnote. Plagiarism occurs both when the words of another (in print, electronic, or any other medium) are reproduced without acknowledgement and when the ideas or arguments of another are paraphrased in such a way as to lead the reader to believe that they originated with the writer. It is not sufficient to provide a citation if the words of another have been reproduced – this also requires quotation marks.”
Don’t recycle papers. The Rubric considers reuse of earlier work without permission a violation: “Submitting, without specific permission of the instructor, work that has been previously offered by the same student for credit in another course.”

Do Your Own Work

Most students want to do their own work and submit good papers. The first step to avoiding plagiarism is avoiding situations that can lead to bad decisions. When you get a source-based writing assignment, plan ahead so that you have time to research, outline, draft, revise, cite sources, and proofread. You cannot perform all these steps the night before a paper is due. Start early, and if you need help at any stage, arrange a meeting with your professor or a Writing Studio Consultant.

Paraphrase, Quote, and Cite Sources Properly

When you paraphrase ideas and arguments from your sources, be careful to use your own words and sentence structures. You also need to make sure that your paraphrase is an accurate representation of the author’s ideas and includes a citation. If the language in your paraphrase is too close to the original or lacks citation, your passage could violate #2 above. When you include verbatim language from a source, be sure the quoted language is accurate, enclosed in quotation marks, and attributed to the author. Again, overlooking some or all of these issues of quotation could lead to problems with #2 above.

In addition to citing all paraphrased ideas and quoted language from your sources, you will need to provide attribution for a wide variety of other intellectual property incorporated into the work you submit. Providing proper attribution is key to writing with integrity and avoiding plagiarism. The following table of sources that do and do not require attribution is based Andrea Lunsford’s list found on pages 243-244 of The St. Martin’s Handbook (8th edition).

When to Attribute

You need to provide attribution for:

Quoted language or paraphrased passages
Any ideas or arguments borrowed from a source
Graphs, tables, or data sets from a source
Visuals - photos, graphics, or videos from a source
Sound - audio recordings from a source
Interviews conducted by a source
Experiments conducted by source
Help, advice, or ideas provided by others

No attribution is needed for:

Your own ideas and language
Your own surveys
Graphs, tables, or data sets you created
Visuals you created
Sound you created
Interviews you conducted yourself
Your own field research
Common knowledge

As you advance in your major, you should acquire the style manual for your discipline. The most commonly used citation styles are MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), and Chicago. Each manual provides comprehensive guidelines on citing sources in text, documenting sources at paper’s end, formatting sample papers, and a wide variety of other style conventions. Additionally, each manual has Web support with supplemental information and tutorials for beginners.

If you are assigned a paper that requires skills and techniques with which you need assistance, ask for help. Most professors hold office hours and assist students outside of class. You also can check with the subject librarian in your discipline. The Subject Specialists’ page lists all the librarians by subject area. The University Libraries’ Citing Your Sources page has useful links to citation resources and bibliography management.

Don't Recycle Papers

Recycling paper will win you points in a sustainability competition but could land you in trouble when submitting course work. The paper you submitted on Hamlet in freshman composition cannot be reused for your world literature assignment. Professors expect you to undertake new work. If you want to write about Hamlet again, request a meeting with the world literature professor, take the Hamlet paper, and ask how you might extend the work to fit the new assignment. This should be taken seriously, especially with the increasing use of plagiarism-checking software and archival databases.

Additional Resources

Writing Studio Consultants

APA Style

Chicago Style

MLA Style

Works Consulted

Academic Initiatives and Integrity, home page. University of Arkansas. University of Arkansas, n.d. Web. 21 Sep. 2016.

Howard, Rebecca Moore. Writing Matters. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2015. Print

Chicago Style

This page introduces the basics of Chicago style. For more detailed guidelines and advanced formatting help, consult The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition. The full text is available at the editors’ Web site, along with the abridged Chicago Style Quick Guide.

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses two systems of documentation: a note-bibliography system and an author-date system. Used most often in literature, history, and the arts, the note-bibliography system includes bibliographic information in notes, supplemented by a bibliography. The author-date system includes citation in parentheses (author, publication date, and page number if necessary), and full publication information is included in a bibliography. This system is used most often in the physical, natural, and social sciences.

Bibliographic Notes & In-Text Citations

Note-Bibliographic System

In the note-bibliography system, you cite a source by inserting a superscript number in the text and listing the source’s essential bibliographic information in either a footnote or an endnote. The source’s full bibliographic entry is included on a list at the end. To determine whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, consult your instructor. If you have to decide which type of note to use, see CMS 14.43-14.45.

In the note-bibliography system, notes contain full bibliographic information or a shortened version. For many university papers, professors require a full bibliographic note when you cite a work the first time and a shortened note for subsequent citations. Each source has a full entry in the bibliography. CMS states that you may use a shortened citation for all notes, since the full publication information is available in the bibliography. Be sure to read your assignment. Shortened citations include the last name of the author and the key word or words (no more than four) of the title of the work, as well as the page numbers. Superscript numbers are placed at the end of a sentence or clause, and after any marks of punctuation (except the dash).

Full citation in a note:

1. Newton N. Minow and Craig L. LaMay, Inside the Presidential Debates: Their Improbable Past and Promising Future (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 24-25.

Shortened citation in a note:

1. Minow and LaMay, Presidential Debates, 24-25.

If you are citing a long electronic source or a long work with no page numbers, your note should include a chapter number, a paragraph number, or a section heading to help your reader locate a particular passage. For shorter works, a locator may be unnecessary. (CMS 14.17) For more examples of notes, see the table of bibliographic forms at the end of this handout. (CMS 14.14-15, 14.21, 14.24-28)

Previous editions of Chicago Manual of Style encouraged the use of “ibid” for successive references to the same work, but this practice is now discouraged in favor of shortened notes. This is primarily to adjust to the rise in electronic formats that link to one note at a time, as “Ibid” risks confusing a reader and forces them to hunt for the prior citation. However, instead of repeating the full shortened citation, the title of the work may be omitted. (CMS 14.34)

Instead of:

1. Morrison, Beloved, 3.
2. Ibid., 18.

Chicago now encourages:

1. Morrison, Beloved, 3.
2. Morrison, 18.

Author-Date System

For the author-date system, parenthetical citations contain the author’s last name, the publication date of the work cited, and a page number if needed. If the author’s name appears in the text of your sentence, the citation contains only the publication date and a page number if needed. (CMS 15.5, 15.20-30).

In-text citation:

Abramowitz and Saunders (2005) suggest that the mass public is deeply divided between red states and blue states and between churchgoers and secular voters.

Cells grown from Henrietta Lacks’s tumor helped scientists to discover how many chromosomes are in a normal human cell (Skloot 2010, 100).

If you cannot find an author for your source, include a shortened version of the title for the in-text citation and the bibliographic entry. If you cannot find a date of publication for your source, use an access date for the in-text citation and the bibliographic entry. CMS suggests that the owner or publisher of a website may be used in place of the author’s name. (CMS 15.32, 15.51)

In-text citation:

Besides the University of Arkansas Razorbacks, no other American sports team uses a pig or a hog as its mascot (Wikipedia 2011).

Reference List Entry

Wikipedia. 2011. “Arkansas Razorbacks.” Accessed January 27.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas_Razorbacks.

Quoting from Sources

Note-Bibliography System

For the note-bibliography system, the note should be placed after a quotation and after any punctuation marks at the end of the quotation. (CMS 14.21)

As Edward Tufte points out, “A graphical element may carry date information and also perform a design function usually left to non-data-ink.”⁶

Author-Date System

For the author-date system, the citation of the source normally follows a direct quotation, but the CMS states that it can also precede the quotation – particularly if such a placement allows the date to appear with the author’s name. (CMS 15.25)

As Edward Tufte points out, “A graphical element may carry date information and also perform a design function usually left to non-data-ink” (2001, 139).

As Edward Tufte (2001, 139) points out, “A graphical element may carry date information and also perform a design function usually left to non-data-ink.”

When the source of a block quotation is given in parentheses at the end of the quotation, the citation follows the final punctuation mark of the quoted material. (CMS 15.25)

The 2007 Pew Global Attitudes Survey showed a remarkable increase worldwide in positive views about free trade, markets, and democracy. Large majorities in countries from China and Germany to Bangladesh and Nigeria said that growing trade ties between countries were good. Of the forty- seven countries polled, however, the one that came in dead last in terms of support for free trade was the United States. (Zakaria 2009, 418)

Types of Bibliographies

Chicago style recognizes several different types of bibliographies, but the two most commonly used are the full bibliography and the selected bibliography. Many university papers require a full bibliography, which includes all works cited in the paper. A selected bibliography contains full publication information for only some of the works cited and includes a headnote explaining selections. If your instructor asks for a selected bibliography, consult the CMS. (CMS 14.14, 14.59)

For the note-bibliography system, the CMS recommends the full bibliography, most often titled “Bibliography” and less frequently “Works Cited” or “Literature Cited.”

The author-date system always uses the full bibliography; thus, each entry in the reference list must correspond to a work cited in the text. This bibliography page is usually titled “References” or “Works Cited.” (CMS 15.5)

For both types, entries are arranged alphabetically by authors’ last names. If the source has no author, list by editor, translator, compiler, or title. Both types of bibliographies also are in flush-and-hang style, or hanging-indention format: the first line of the entry is flush left, with subsequent lines indented. (CMS 1.61, 14.57)

The major difference between the two systems is that the bibliography for the author-date system places the year of publication immediately after the author’s name. (CMS 15.5).

Bibliographic entry for the note-bibliography system:

Skloot, Rebecca. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown Publishers, 2010.

Bibliographic entry for the author-date system:

Skloot, Rebecca. 2010. The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown Publishers.

Citation Examples

Source Type	Note-Bibliography System	Author-Date System	Bibliography Entry
Book with one author (CMS 14.75)	1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006), 99-100	(Pollan 2006, 99-100)	Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Book with editor, translator, or compiler instead of author (CMS 14.87, 15.35)	1. Richmond Lattimore, trans. The Iliad of Homer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 91-92.	(Lattimore 1951, 91-92)	Lattimore, Richmond, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
Book with editor, translator, or compiler in addition to author (CMS 14.88)	1. Gabriel García Márquez, Love in the Time of Cholera, trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 242-55.	(García Márquez 1988, 33)	García Márquez, Gabriel, Love in the Time of Cholera. Translated by Edith Grossman. London: Cape, 1988.
Book with two or three authors or editors (CMS 14.76)	1. Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 52.	(Ward and Burns 2007, 52)	Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. The War: An Intimate History, 1941-1945. New York: Knopf, 2007.
Source with more than three authors or editors (CMS 14.76)	1. Jing Chen et al., "Effects of Computer Versus Paper Administration of an Adult Functional Writing Assessment," Assessing Writing 16, no. 1 (2011): 65.	(Chen et al. 2011, 65)	Chen, Jing, Sheida white, Michael McCloskey, Jaleh Soroui, and Young Chun. "Effects of Computer Versus Paper Administration of an Adult Functional Writing Assessment." Assessing Writing 16, no. 1 (2011): 49-71.
Chapter in a book (CMS 14.111)	1. John D. Kelly, "Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the Moral Economy of War," in Anthropology and Glocal Counterinsurgency, ed. John D. Kelly et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 77.	(Kelly 2010, 77)	Kelly, John D. "Seeing Red: Mao Fetishism, Pax Americana, and the Moral Economy of War." In Anthropology and Glocal Counterinsurgency, edited by John D. Kelly, Beatrice Jauregui, Sean T. Mitchell, and Jeremy Walton, 67-83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Article in a print journal with volume number only (CMS 14.180)	1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in Plato's Republic," Classical Philosophy 104 (2009): 440.	(Weinstein 2009, 440)	Weinstein, Joshua I. "The Market in Plato's Republic." Classical Philosophy 104 (2009): 439-58.
Aricle in a print journal with volume and issue numbers (CMS 14.180, 15.46)	1. Cecelia Menjívar, "Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants' Lives in the United States," American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (2006): 1028.	(Menjívar 2006, 1028)	Menjívar, Cecelia. "Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants' Lives in the United States." American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (2006): 99-1037.
Article in a scholarly journal accessed electronically (CMS 14.180, 14.184)	1. Gueorgi Kossinets and Duncan J. Watts, "Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social Network," American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 411, accessed February 28, 2010, doi:10.1086/599247.	(Kossinets and Watts 2009, 411)	Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. "Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social Network." American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 405-50. Accessed February 28, 2010. doi:10.1086/599247.

Other Chicago Style Resources

Editors of the CMS answer questions from students and researchers.
Sample paper with bibliography in note-bibliography system from the Purdue Online Writing Lab.

MLA Style

Proper use of Modern Language Association (MLA) style makes it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend a text through familiar cues that refer to sources and borrowed information. Editors and instructors also encourage everyone to use the same format so there is consistency of style within a given field. Abiding by MLA's standards as a writer will allow you to:

Compose work that is aligned with the accepted style and format of various fields, including literature, languages, philosophy, and other humanities
Provide your readers with cues they can use to follow your ideas more efficiently and to locate information of interest to them
Allow readers to focus more on your ideas by not distracting them with unfamiliar or complicated formatting
Establish your credibility or ethos in the field by demonstrating an awareness of your audience and their needs as fellow researchers (particularly concerning the citing of references)

Structure

Font

Generally, papers written using MLA style will use Times New Roman 12-point font. However, this can vary as long as your chosen font is clearly readable and the change has been approved by your professor. Additionally, if using a different font, make sure that the normal font clearly contrasts with italics, as italics are used for emphasis in MLA. You should keep this font consistent throughout the entire paper, but MLA does allow for variability if you are inserting endnotes.

Header & Title

At the top of your first page and aligned with the left margin (do not indent), type your name, your professor’s (or professors’ if there is more than one in your course) name, the course name and number, and the date on individual double-spaced lines. Make sure that each of these elements is in this order, and that each one is on a separate line. For your paper’s title, start a new double-spaced line and center-align it. When writing your title, do not underline, bold, or put it in quotations. Capitalize the first, last, and all primary words in the title. Additionally, italicize any words that you would italicize in the body of your paper. Do not add a period to the end of your title or any other header in the paper. Your text should begin on the next double-spaced line. MLA does not have specifications for title pages; however, there are some allowances to consider. If your paper is part of a group project, include all the authors on a title page instead of in the header detailed above. If your professor requires a title page, follow their formatting guidelines and include it in addition to, or in lieu of, your header.

Title Capitalization

The first and last words of your title should always be capitalized, as should any other principal words in the title. While you may capitalize “The” or “A” if it is the first word of your title, articles should not be capitalized in the remainder of the title. Other words that do not require capitalization (unless they are the first word of the title) include words such as “and,” “or,” “for,” “in,” and “if.” Generally, all words that are four letters long or longer should be capitalized, including pronouns, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, and verbs. Any words that come after a punctuation mark should be capitalized as well.

Examples:

The Case for Linguistic Alternatives in Academia

Brontë’s Wuthering Heights: The Rise of Modern Gothic Literature

Running Head & Page Numbers

Page numbers should be numbered consecutively and aligned with the right margin of your paper, half an inch from the top of the page. Before each number, include your last name followed by a space. If your paper is part of a group project, and all the author’s names do not fit into the header, do not include any names and use only the page number. Do not use abbreviations (p, pg, pp, etc.), periods, hyphens or any other marks alongside the number. Most word processors will allow you to create a running page number automatically, so check to see if that is a possibility.

Internal Headings & Subheadings

When writing an essay, headings and subheadings can be a useful tool to keep your thoughts organized and to make sure your reader stays oriented as you change topics. Headings should be a concise description or indication of what you will be covering in the subsequent section of your text. Brevity is key, as you do not want your reader to focus more on the heading than your topic sentence.

When formatting your heading, align the text with the left margin and do not indent or center it. Include a space above and below your heading to keep it readable. You should avoid using numbers or letters when ordering headings (i.e., A., B. C., etc...; 1., 2., 3., etc...) unless your field of study utilizes this format as a convention.

If you are using subheadings, or a heading to indicate a subsection of a larger section of your paper, be sure to keep the format of these headings stylistically consistent. This consistency is important for keeping your reader from becoming lost in the structure of your text. When formatting your headings and subheadings, style them in descending order of prominence. For example, a heading that is bolded (Example 1) will be more prominent than a heading that is neutral (Example 2), and this neutral heading will be more prominent than a heading that is Italicized (Example 3). Generally, try to avoid using all capital letters for your headings, but what matters most is that consistency is maintained throughout your paper. Be sure that if you have included a subheading, the next new heading you make returns to the style of the first heading you have written.

Example:

Heading

Subheading

Subheading

Heading

Subheading

Subheading

Line Spacing

Every part of your paper should be double-spaced. This includes your title, heading, Works Cited, as well as any block quotes. The first line of each new paragraph should be indented half an inch from the left margin. Works Cited entries should be formatted with a hanging indent (first line of entry is left-aligned, second and subsequent lines of entry are indented half an inch). If you’re not sure how to create a hanging indent, look up “hanging indent” + your word processor for help.

Margins

Your paper’s margins should be 1 inch from the top and the bottom of the page.

Paragraphs

The bulk of your paper should be double-spaced and aligned with the left margin. The first line of each paragraph should be indented half an inch from the left margin. If you include a block quotation, make sure the whole quotation is indented one inch from the left margin (see “Block Quotes” below). Indenting can be easily done by pressing the Tab key at the beginning of a new line. After each period, only put one space before the start of a new sentence, unless your professor specifies that they prefer two spaces.

Style

In MLA, the use of active voice prevents your writing from becoming unfocused and over-complicated. Because active voice not only communicates direct action, but also uses fewer words to portray action, your writing becomes more concise and thus easier to follow.

Using Active Voice

It is customary to use the active voice as much as possible throughout your writing, particularly within non-scientific writing. A sentence that uses the active voice requires its subject to perform the action being described in the verb. Active voice also includes the use of active verbs, or verbs that describe direct action (i.e., run, catch, drink, buy...etc.).

Example:

A generous grading curve boosted the class average.

Scientific Writing & Passive Voice

Scientific writing in MLA uses the passive voice to both maintain objectivity as well as to establish an authoritative tone. What separates passive voice from active voice is that instead of the subject performing the action described by the verb, the subject receives the action described by the verb. Passive voice is also more likely to use verbs of being, or verbs that describe the state of the subject (i.e., am, is, are, was, were...etc.).

Example:

The class average was boosted by a generous grading curve.

Changing between Passive Voice and Active Voice

When changing a sentence from passive voice to active voice, first identify what and/or who is performing the action described by the verb. For brevity’s sake, this will be referred to as the “performative agent.” Once you have identified this, rewrite the sentence using the performative agent as the subject, then omit any attached verbs of being and convert the verb to its active form.

Passive to Active:

(Passive) The fact that consistent eye contact builds rapport has been confirmed by numerous studies.

(Active) Numerous studies confirm that consistent eye contact builds rapport.

Alternatively, when changing a sentence from active voice to passive voice, identify the performative agent and make it the object of the sentence. This is usually done by adding a “by the...” phrase, in which the object demonstrates action upon the subject. Couple the “by the...” phrase with a verb of being and the past participle of the primary verb.

Active to Passive:

(Active) In 2001: A Space Odyssey, Stanley Kubrick incorporates pre-existing pieces of music into his film, and thus music scholars consider its soundtrack non-diegetic.

(Passive) The soundtrack to Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey is considered non-diegetic because he incorporated pre-existing pieces of music into his film.

Citations & Quotes

When to Quote

The following criteria for when to quote are adapted from Behrens and Rosen’s ninth edition of Writing and Reading across the Curriculum.

Use quotation marks with:

Memorable language - use quotation when the author of your source turns a phrase, sentence, or passage of particularly powerful, vivid, or memorable language.
Clear and concise language - use quotation when the language in your source is so clear and succinct that any attempt to paraphrase would be ineffective.
Authoritative language - use quotation to add the authority of experts and prominent figures. Quotations from authoritative sources can be useful in supporting your argument.
Language for analysis - use quotation to highlight source passages that you will discuss and engage with analytically.

How to Integrate

Integrate quotations into your own sentences. Quotations cannot stand alone as sentences; an unembedded quotation is a sentence fragment. Contextualize the quote before or after using it in a sentence. This can be done with a sentence introducing the author, a sentence providing background information about what inspired the quote, a sentence of analysis firmly fitting the quote into your argument, etc. Provide signal phrases, which include the author’s name and a signal verb. MLA style uses present tense signal verbs, in- text citations, and full source listings on the works-cited list at paper’s end.

Freedman states, “Bittman is hardly alone in his reflexive dismissals” (534).

Vary the placement of your signal phrases and use a variety of signal verbs. “Bittman is hardly alone in his reflexive dismissals,” Freedman claims (534).

“Denying the humanity of other people has always been a way to justify oppressing and exterminating them,” argues Olson, “and science has a long, sad history of contributing to these atrocities" (13).

Examples of Present Tense Signal Verbs

Neutral

says
states
writes
notes
observes
indicates
compares
shows
introduces
thinks
explains
concludes
describes
comments

Argument

argues
asserts
believes
claims
maintains
contends
recommends
points out

Concession

acknowledges
concedes
grants

Agreement

agrees
supports
confirms
concurs

Disagreement

denies
disagrees
refutes
contradicts
questions
criticizes
warns
complains

Combine paraphrasing with quotations to capture the idea and language necessary to express your point:

Science has contributed to the “long, sad history” of atrocities justified by “denying the humanity of other people” (Olson 13).

Include the credentials of the author you are quoting in an appositive phrase:

William McDonough, green architect and co-author of Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, states, “Nature operates according to a system of nutrients and metabolisms in which there is no such thing as waste” (92).

To alter a quotation for clarification or to fit the grammar of your sentence, indicate any changes by placing the altered language in brackets. Be careful not to alter the original meaning:

Furthermore, Pollan asserts that “[Food] also comprises a set of social and ecological relationships, reaching back to the land and outward to other people” (439).

To shorten the original quotation, use an ellipsis (three periods with a space between each):

Pollan states, “American gas stations now make more money selling food . . . than gasoline . . .” (192).

To quote someone quoted in your source, include the phrase qtd. in in the parenthetical citation. The best practice is to search for the original source quoted by your source, if available.

Gladys Block, Berkeley professor and epidemiologist, says, “I don’t believe anything I read in nutritional epidemiology anymore” (qtd. in Pollan 78).

When quoting a source that uses a labeling system other than page numbers (e.g., poetry, scripts), include that label in your in-text citation. Labels may include lines (mainly for poetry), scenes (abbreviate sc.), paragraphs (abbreviate par.), and chapters (abbreviate ch.). Only use these numbering systems if they already exist in the text; do not create your own numbering system.

Wallace Stevens gives a beloved dessert a poetic twist in “The Emperor of Ice-Cream,” writing “Let the lamp affix its beam. / The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream" (lines 15-16).

If the quotation takes up more than four lines of prose or three lines of verse in your typed text, indent the quotation one inch from the left margin, omit quotation marks, and place the passage-ending period before the in-text citation. When quoting verse, keep line breaks as close to the original as possible.

Hamby describes King’s focus and strategy during the final two years of his life:

The Poor People’s Campaign underscored a shift in King’s social vision away from an emphasis upon integration and toward a more class-oriented critique of American social structure. The elements of the new approach, however, were solidly rooted in King’s theology. [H]e was expressing more clearly than ever—in his calls for massive aid to the poor, for a new spirit of Christian brotherhood, for the salvation of American society—the Christian socialism of Walter Rauschenbusch that had so long captured his imagination. (211-12)

Langston Hughes relays a message of hope in the short poem “Dream Dust”:

Gather out of star-dust

Earth-dust,

Cloud-dust,

And splinters of hail,

One handful of dream-dust

Not for sale. (lines 1-6)

Punctuation

Introduce quotations with a comma unless there is a word (such as “that”) after the signal verb. Use a colon if the language preceding forms a complete sentence.

Pollan urges, “Avoid food products that make health claims” (154).

Pollan reports that “Americans are increasingly eating in solitude” (192).

Pollan proposes developing a strategy for navigating the supermarket: “If you keep to the edges of the store you’ll be that much more likely to wind up with real food in your shopping cart” (157).

Works Cited

If you are unable to verify a publication date, do not include a date, but do include the date when you accessed the work at the end of your citation.
If the source is online and has a DOI (Digital Object Identifier), include that at the end as a URL (https://doi.org/###).
If your source has no known author, alphabetize the source by its title and use a shortened version of the title in your in-text citation.
If your source was published by an author using a pseudonym, cite the author's real name followed by their pseudonym in brackets (e.g., Jackson, James [50 Cent]).

Common Types of References

Book

Online Article with No Author

If there is a group responsible for the page, use the group name instead.

Template

“Title of Article or Webpage.” Name of the website, the site’s URL. the date you accessed the content.

Example

“Top 10 Methods for Becoming a Businessperson.” Bizness, www.bizness.org/top_10_methods_businessperson.html. Accessed 11 July 2022.

If the author of the work is a division or committee of the organization, list the division or committee as the author and list the organization as the publisher.

Template

Name of the group. “Title of Article or Webpage.” Name of the website, the article's URL. The date you accessed the content.

Example

MLA Ad Hoc Committee on Foreign Languages. “Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World.” Modern Language Association, www.mla.org/flreport. Accessed 12 Sept. 2019.

Unusual References

“Active Versus Passive Voice.” Purdue OWL - Purdue University,

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/active_and_passive_voice/active_versus_passive_voice.html

“Changing Passive to Active Voice.” Purdue OWL - Purdue University,

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/active_and_passive_voice/changing_passive_to_active_voice.html

“Format & Cite: MLA 9th Edition.” Columbia College Library, 26 Oct. 2022,

https://gocolumbia.libguides.com/cite/MLA_8th#:~:text=Line-spacing:%20Double-space,appears%20before%20the%20page%20numbers.

“MLA Formatting Quotations.” Purdue OWL - Purdue University,

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_formatting_quotations.html

MLA Handbook. 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

"MLA Works Cited Page: Basic Format.” Purdue OWL - Purdue University,

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_works_cited_page_basic_format.html

Rappaport, Jennifer. “Citing Material Posted on Social Media Platforms” MLA Style Center,

https://style.mla.org/citing-social-media/

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a way to incorporate outside sources into your writing. It involves restating a passage of text from another source in your own words. A fair and accurate paraphrase includes the main idea, supporting details, and citation.

Purpose & Characteristics

The three main techniques for incorporating sources into your writing are summary, quotation and paraphrase. Employed most frequently, paraphrase can be used to:

introduce a point of view you will analyze and critique
compare and contrast several points of view on a topic
provide background and discussion on a topic
provide evidence and support for your own claims

An effective paraphrase has the following characteristics:

recasts the original passage in your own words and sentence structures
includes the main ideas and supporting details from the original passage
is usually as long as long as the original passage
preserves the technical terms from the original passage
is often introduced with a signal phrase that gives credit to the author (In Smith’s opinion...)
includes an in-text citation and a bibliographic entry

Avoid Patchwriting

Patchwriting is substandard paraphrasing. When patchwriting, the student writer doesn’t use original sentence structures or word choices; instead, the writer selects synonyms for just a few words and/or rearranges the order of the author’s words, phrases, or sentences. Beware, patchwriting may lead to allegations of plagiarism.

Guidelines for Paraphrasing

To successfully paraphrase, and avoid patchwriting, try these steps:

Read the source text carefully, until you fully understand it.
If necessary, take notes on the key ideas.
Put the source text away (turn the book over! close the browser!) and paraphrase it from memory.
Check your newly written paraphrase against the source text for originality and accuracy.
Repeat steps 1-4 if needed.
Add in attribution to the original author (signal phrases) and citation.

When evaluating your paraphrase, always check for these essentials:

your words: it restates the passage using your own vocabulary
your sentence structures: it uses your own unique sentence structures
signal phrases: it introduces the author(s) and places the ideas in their voice
attribution: it provides in-text and bibliographical citation that gives credit to the source
accurate: it accurately conveys the ideas of the author(s)

Comparing Examples

Citations for the following examples are done in MLA style.

Original Passage, Quoted & Cited

“It is trickier to define plagiarism when you summarize or paraphrase. They are not the same, but they blend so seamlessly that you may not be aware when you drift from summary into paraphrase, then across the line into plagiarism. No matter your intention, close paraphrase may count as plagiarism, even when you cite the source” (Booth et al. 203).

Patchwriting & Plagiarizing the Passage, Without Signal Phrase or Citation

It is difficult to define plagiarism when summary and paraphrase are involved, because while they differ, their boundaries blur, and a writer may not know when they are summarizing, paraphrasing, or plagiarizing. Regardless, too close a paraphrase is plagiarism, even when the source is cited.

Paraphrasing the Passage Accurately, With a Signnal Phrase & Citation

According to Booth et al., writers sometimes plagiarize unconsciously because they think they are summarizing, when in fact they are too closely paraphrasing, an act that counts as plagiarism, even when done unintentionally and when sources are cited (203).

Note: The second passage not only commits plagiarism because it lacks attribution to the original authors; it also maintains the sentence structures of the original and simply replaces a few words with synonyms. It does not recast the passage in a new way or in the student writer’s voice.

The third, successful, passage closely paraphrases the original but avoids plagiarism because it varies sentence structures—the original three sentence passage becomes one long sentence—it uses a signal phrase to make it clear these ideas are not the student writer’s, and it uses language that varies from the original.

Works Consulted

Booth, Wayne C., Colomb, Gregory G., and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Howard, Rebecca Moore. Writing Matters. McGraw-Hill, 2010.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martins, 2015.

Paraphrasing. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2020,

owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and _citation/using_research/quoting_paraphrasing_and_summarizing/paraphrasing. Accessed 18 Jun. 2020.

Types of Writing

Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of a scientific report or research paper - see the end of this guide for information on writing a humanities abstract. While searching databases, researchers read abstracts to decide whether the full papers are valuable. An effective abstract concisely communicates a paper's main ideas and serves as a signpost to interested readers. Because the abstract summarizes and highlights content found in the paper's major sections, the best time to write an abstract is late in the writing process.

The abstract highlights the main information in a report, so you should have 1-2 sentences for each main section. You provide background and introduce the topic, state the research question, describe the primary method, report key results, and draw any significant conclusions. An abstract rarely includes literature reviewed and does not often engage in discussion of results. In cases where a discussion of results is warranted (e.g., in scientific articles), the section should be kept brief (i.e., 1-2 sentences) and focus primarily on (1) the acknowledgment of a study’s limitations, (2) significant implications of the data, or (3) potential areas for future study.

Writing an Abstract

First, read abstracts from journals in your field and abstracts from journals where you want to publish. The description provided above applies to most abstracts, but you will encounter a few variations. Some journals, such as The Journal of Emergency Medicine, call for a structured approach using subheadings:

Background
Objectives
Methods
Results
Conclusions

This approach, used in a variety of fields, makes writing the 200-250 word abstract highly organized and leaves nothing to chance. You communicate concisely under each subheading, usually 1-3 sentences.

Most other journals expect a similar format, just without the subheadings. You might try writing with the subheadings and then removing them later. You should be left with 6-10 concise sentences like the sentences in this abstract from Web Ecology.

Finally, some journals prefer a results-driven approach. The author introduces the topic, may mention the research question, and then moved to results and interpretation. Notice the first three words of the second sentence in this abstract from Science: "We found that ..." The authors are clearly discussing the results. To write this type of abstract, use the bulleted list above and omit Objectives and Methods. Write a more concise abstract that focuses on what your study found and what it means.

Using Keywords

Some journals encourage the listing of specific keywords at the end of an abstract. These keywords (1) provide the reader insight into what topics will be primarily covered within the article and (2) function as search terms to help indexes and search engines to find the article online. The exact formatting of these keywords may vary from one writing style to another (e.g., APA versus MLA). Please visit the appropriate writing guide for your formatting style for more specific formatting information.

Editing and Polishing an Abstract

Keep the abstract short, precise, and uncluttered. Avoid unfamiliar abbreviations and acronyms. Do not make in-text references to your sources. An abstract is sometimes separated from the rest of the paper for indexing, so you cannot assume a reader will have access to your bibliography. Do not use tables, figures, or illustrations, and avoid any long lists in the text.

Writing a Humanities CFP/Abstract

In the humanities the term "abstract" often means a brief summary of your work given as a conference proposal in response to a conference Call for Papers (CFP). Most CFPs will have specific guidelines when it comes to style and formatting. This might include page and word count, how to present authors and quotes, whether the use of footnotes is appropriate, or submission instructions. These instructions may differ based on the individual conference.

If you ever encounter a CFP that does not provide specific formatting guidelines, it is best to keep your word count around 250-500 words and cite authors and titles of works within the text (using italics or quotes) instead of using footnotes. Due to the limited word count, be careful to avoid unnecessary wording, and be sure to use active voice. Be careful not to write broadly about your topic; be clear and concise without losing specificity.

The following moves can help you craft a professional, compelling abstract:

Start with the big-picture problem: Briefly introduce the discussion in your field that acts as context for your paper.
Briefly identify the gap in the literature: What part of this issue or discussion needs closer investigation?
Explain how your work fills this gap.
Tie into the existing literature: Identify specific materials you are examining or building upon.
Briefly summarize your original contribution, claim, or argument.
End with a strong concluding sentence that signifies why your work is important.

This guide provides additional help and tips for writing an abstract for a CFP.

Works Consulted (MLA, 7th Edition)

Davis, Martha. Scientific Papers and Presentations. San Diego: Academic Press, 2005. Print.

Department of History. “Tips for Writing Conference Paper Abstracts.” NC State University. N.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2022.

Purdue Owl Writing Lab. “Abstracts.” N.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2022.

Purdue Owl Writing Lab. “General Format.” N.d. Web. 1 Nov. 2022.

Swales, John M., and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills. Ann Arbor:

University of Michigan Press, 2004. Print.

Annotated Bibliography

The annotated bibliography is an alphabetical listing of sources. Each bibliographic entry includes a brief description of the source’s content. Preparing an annotated bibliography as you search for sources helps with organization and planning in longer projects. Sometimes instructors assign an annotated bibliography as a separate document you submit along with a research paper assignment.

Bibliographic Entries

Consult your style manual (APA, MLA, etc.) for help formatting the entry for each source type (book, journal, Web site, etc.) and then arrange the list as you would when preparing a bibliography at the end of a research paper or article.

Annotations

Immediately following each bibliographic entry, write a brief summary, also called an annotation. Annotate each entry to include the following:

a brief summary of the source
an evaluation of the source’s credibility, of the source’s argument or stance, and of the source’s relevance to your project.

Some assignments require that you provide only summary and not any evaluation, so read your assignment sheet carefully. In addition, you may focus your summary and evaluation on the particular chapter or section of a book, journal, or web source that is relevant to your project. Your evaluation may note any graphs, photos, or charts that you find useful to your project.

Format

Although the major style manuals provide help with formatting the bibliographic entries, most do not have explicit guidelines for annotations and the overall document. ¹ If your instructor does not provide detailed requirements, the following example should help:

_¹The Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.) presents an image of annotated bib entry on page 689.

MLA Example Entry

Lauer, Janice M. “Writing as Inquiry: Some Questions for Teachers.” College Composition and Communication 33.1

(1982): 89-93. Print.

Janice Lauer is an English rhetoric and composition professor emerita at Purdue University who has written numerous articles and books on pedagogical theory. She argues composition teachers should help their students understand that writing is essentially a problem-solving process, a pursuit of discovery and insight. She synthesizes literature that addresses educational inquiry and the historical precedent established by scholars who espouse inquiry as vital to the writing process. This article is particularly useful for discussing the advantages of writing education that cultivates the ability to inquire and reason over writing education that privileges rote learning and “canned” lessons.

Works Consulted

The Chicago Manual of Style. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2010. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2015. Print.

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: MLA, 2009. Print.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington, DC: APA, 2009. Print.

Argument

What is an argument?

An argument is a claim or assertion that is supported by evidence of one kind or another; while ‘argument’ can refer to children (or adults!) bickering and fighting, the term is used in academic contexts to discuss a piece of writing that stakes out a position, offers reasons for that position, and defends itself logically from counterpoints.

When might you write an argument?

Arguably, argument is one of the most common forms of writing in academia: anytime you are trying to support a claim or defend a position that is not immediately apparent or that others might disagree with, you are writing an argument. Importantly, this means that many of the arguments we make are technical arguments (even if we don’t use that word to describe them)!

One easy example is to think of an argumentative essay where you are trying to defend a particular position; over the course of several paragraphs or pages, you explain the details of your position and offer evidence for its truth. Ideally, if your reader understands your line of thinking at the end of your paper, they will agree with your conclusion.

But imagine that you get a parking ticket that you don’t deserve (perhaps you paid the parking fee, but the meter reader’s computer didn’t register your transaction). When you go to explain that you don’t want to pay the ticket, you’ll also make an argument in support of your innocence. The claim here is “I did not deserve this parking ticket,” and the evidence you can give is something like “I paid the parking fee properly” (and, hopefully, you have the payment receipt to prove this fact!). This doesn’t require anger or shouting (like we might stereotypically associate with arguing children), but is simply a matter of explaining why your belief in your innocence is logically correct.

Indeed, because so much of academic life involves sharing information and defending interpretations of ideas, arguments defending different positions comprise a significant amount of academic interactions.

How might you write an argument?

There are at least two basic forms that arguments take in academic writing: a formal construction of premises that lead to a conclusion and the informal development of evidence and argumentation in prose. One thing that both styles of argument have in common, though, is the thesis statement: the basic claim that you are attempting to prove (or argue) with your argument. Developing a clear, relatively short thesis statement that captures the essential elements of what you want to convince your audience is true is an important step to writing an argument.

The other thing that all arguments require is evidence or reasons to believe that the thesis statement you’re defending is true. This can take the form of quantitative data (like measurements or statistics), qualitative reports (like first-hand accounts, experiential descriptions, or references to authorities on the topic), and logical connections. Regarding that last one: if, for example, you are (for some reason) trying to prove that Lebron James cannot fly, you could demonstrate that no humans can fly (and then, because Lebron James is a human, it is logically entailed that Lebron James is one of those humans who cannot fly).

Formal

Formal arguments offer the evidence for your thesis statement as numbered premises that lead to a conclusion; the thesis statement is the conclusion (or final item on the number list). Here’s an example:

No human beings can fly.
Lebron James is a human being.
Therefore, Lebron James cannot fly.

Items (1) and (2) are premises (or pieces of evidence that we know to be true) and item (3) is the conclusion (or the thesis statement that the argument is trying to prove).

Informal

More commonly, arguments flow informally through conversation and prose (rather than being structured as formal premises that lead to a conclusion). In these cases (and particularly in argumentative essays) it is often helpful to specify your thesis statement as clearly and quickly as possible — often in the first paragraph of your paper.

After your audience understands what your position is (because they have heard your thesis statement), you can provide them with the various pieces of evidence and other relevant points (like logical connections) to help demonstrate why this thesis is true. While there can be an element of persuasion to this kind of writing, the emphasis is on the truth of the thesis, so the strength of the evidence, the clarity of the relevant logical connections, and the audience’s rational obligation to believe the truth is always the focus of an argument.

Counter-Arguments

Counter-Arguments? Finally, in many cases it is helpful to address potential counterpoints to your thesis statement, particularly with informal arguments. While you should always remain committed to the truth of your thesis statement, it is often helpful to explain where and how people with other perspectives might disagree with your conclusions (and, furthermore, why your point is nevertheless correct).

By fairly representing your interlocutors and preemptively rebutting their critiques of your thesis, you can both clarify your own position and demonstrate that you have done your due diligence to consider other possible options before selecting the position that you have chosen to defend.

Additional Resources

Argument Tips & Tools | UNC Chapel Hill

Arguments in an Essay on Literature | Purdue University

Writing an Argument | Lumen

Evaluating Arguments | Rebus

Written by:

Anthony Holdier, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Compare & Contrast

A Compare and Contrast essay can generally be written by listing characteristics and organizing the essay’s structure before starting to write.

Listing

What things are you comparing/contrasting? (Countries? Foods? Animals? The ideologies behind different teaching styles? Different methods of measuring nitrogen in a plant?) List all the characteristics of the two (or however many) subjects you are comparing. Writing them in separate columns helps.

Just as an example:

image source

Try to have more than this—list as many as possible!

While looking through your list, do you find more similarities or more differences between the two subjects? Whichever you find more of will be the focus of your essay. (If your assignment requires you to compare and contrast, then you will be doing both.)

Organizing Your Essay

After listing the characteristics, the next step is organizing the essay’s structure. A Compare and Contrast essay can be organized by differences, similarities, or both. (Grouping them together with bullet points can help make things easier.)

Differences

For example, if I wrote about the differences between laptops and desktop computers, I would try to focus on these three main differences (though you definitely can use more, if you want):

Laptops are usually smaller.
Laptops are generally cheaper.
Laptops usually have less power.

…and for desktops,

Desktops are usually bigger.
Desktops are generally more expensive.
Desktops usually have more power.

If you’re writing about differences, try to discuss the pros and cons of each difference. Make sure to balance out the number of pros and cons on each side.

Similarities

If you chose to discuss similarities in your paper, make much of your paper about why you think these two subjects are similar. If I wrote about the similarities between laptops and desktops:

Hardware
- They both have monitors.
- They both have keyboards.
- They both have batteries, RAM, CPU/GPU, etc.
- They both have Input/Output (or I/O) capability. Various types of external drives, like USB cables, can connect to both.
Software
- They both can be used to work from home.
  - Office (Excel/Google Sheets, Word/Google Docs, etc.)
  - Zoom (and related videoconferencing software)
- They both run Operating Systems (OS).

Combined

If you chose to discuss both similarities and differences in your paper, then you could start from a similarity-style outline and continue the differences from there. For example, continuing with my laptops-and-desktops essay (with additions in italics):

Hardware
- They both have monitors.
  - But since laptop monitors are generally smaller than desktop monitors, laptops are much more portable.
- They both have keyboards.
  - But some laptop keyboards are prone to overheating.
- They both have batteries, RAM, CPU/GPU, etc.
  - But desktops usually have more RAM than laptops.
- They both have Input/Output (or I/O) capability. Various types of external drives, like USB cables, can connect to both.
  - Since laptops are getting thinner, they don’t usually have as many external ports (or as many different types of external ports) as desktops. However, having too many external ports on desktops can make plugging anything very confusing.
Software
- They both can be used to work from home.
  - Office (Excel/Sheets, Word/Docs, etc.)
  - Zoom (and related videoconferencing software)
  - But working from home drains laptop batteries, while desktops can simply be plugged into the wall.
- They both run Operating Systems (OS).
  - But operating systems usually run faster on desktops.

(I am not an expert on laptops or desktops, so these generalizations are not always true. However, this is just an example.) Experiment with different organizational structures and pick whichever one makes the most sense for your topic.

After organizing the essay, you’re ready to write! Just don’t forget to have a list of transition words.

Additional Resources

Comparing & Contrasting | UNC Chapel Hill

Writing A Compare/Contrast Paper | TIP Sheet - Butte College

Written by:

Terrell Page, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Critique

What is a critique?

A critique is a piece of writing that forms a supported opinion, or evaluation, about another text/subject based on a careful analysis. A critique does this by:

Summarizing—a critique includes a brief description of the text/subject you are critiquing and is found early in the essay to ground the reader. It works under the assumption that readers may be unfamiliar with the text/subject.
Responding—a critique states your overall evaluation of the text/subject, which may be positive, negative, or mixed (a combination of the two). This evaluation appears in the thesis statement and signals the motivation of your writing.
Analyzing—a critique shows how your evaluation was formed with concrete evidence (quotations or paraphrasing) from your text/subject. This information may be outlined in the thesis statement and will be fully presented in the body paragraphs.
Interpreting—a critique explains how and why your evidence supports your evaluation of your text/subject. This information will appear in the body paragraphs and, possibly, in the conclusion.
- Tip: analysis and interpretation are often combined or appear in close proximity.

Strategies for Writing a Critique

Prepare for writing a critique by reading for a critique. That is, read closely! Read more than once and take notes.

Highlight/underline your text as you read.
Jot down initial reactions in the margins or on a separate sheet of paper, with corresponding page numbers.
Ask questions along the way to help you reach your evaluation: in what style is the text/subject written? who is the intended audience? Is the author responding to something—what is the context in which the text/subject was produced?

After reading closely, you should be able to answer the following:

Name the author(s), the title, and any other relevant information about your text/subject.
State what motivates the text, and its overall goal(s) and purpose(s.) A text might be motivated by a response, summary, claim, or something else. Ask yourself, why did the author(s) write this? What is it supposed to accomplish?
- The verbs the author uses may indicate their motivation. For example, the verb “argue” signals their motivation is to make a claim, while the verb “discuss” suggests their motivation is to inform.
Decide if the goals of your text/subject were successfully achieved (positive critique), were poorly achieved (negative critique), or were partially achieved (mixed critique).
Support your decision with specific evidence from your text/subject. Use quotations, paraphrasing, and include the appropriate citations.
- Tip: use author signaling to clarify your voice (1st POV: It seems to me that... or 3rd POV: It seems that...) from the voice of your evidence (According to author X, the...).

Once you’ve answered the above, you are ready to write your critique.

Tip: use your notes while you work through the writing modes—summary, response, analysis, and interpretation. Let your notes act as shortcuts to your evaluation and evidence.
If you aren’t sure where to begin, draft an outline with an introduction, specific body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
- The introduction presents the subject of the paper by naming the author(s), the title, your summary of your subject, and your evaluation in your thesis statement.
- All body paragraphs further your thesis/evaluation, but each body paragraph focuses on a single topic. The body paragraphs include your analysis and your interpretation of this evidence. They should be ordered in a logical manner, using your thesis statement as a cohesive thread.
- The conclusion includes your final thoughts about your text/subject. Your evaluation/thesis statement will be stated again but should be more nuanced, showing how your critique went somewhere. This nuanced evaluation should be logical—all your analysis and interpretation has led to it—and could be a concession, recommendation, call-to-action, PSA, or something else. It’s normal if you don’t know what it will be until you reach the end of the essay.

Additional Resources

Quick help integrating and citing sources above.
Purdue OWL’s Organizing Your Analysis and Rhetorical Situations may help if working on a rhetorical analysis, a specific type of critique.
Help understanding other critiques, according to type, from University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Writing Critiques.

General Sources

Birkenstein, Cathy, and Gerald Graff. They Say / I Say. 4th ed., WW Norton, 2018.

Essay Writing. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2020, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/essay_writing/index.html.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2015.

Written by:

Madeline Vardell, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Group Writing Project

Group writing projects present opportunities and challenges. Students accustomed to working alone can benefit from learning how fellow writers plan, research, draft, and revise. But working in a group requires coordinating schedules, dividing work equitably, accepting constructive feedback, and meeting deadlines.

Reviewing the Assignment

Schedule an initial meeting as soon as possible. The primary focus, of course, is the paper assignment. Read your instructor’s guidelines and highlight key expectations.

What is the final product and when is it due?
How much time do you have to plan, research, write, and revise?
How many times will the group need to meet?
Do members evaluate colleagues?

Dividing Tasks

Two common approaches to dividing the project are:

Specialist approach - members volunteer based on their strengths: researching, writing, designing, editing, citing sources, proofreading, organizing group activities.
Group-to-individual approach - all members work on planning and research; then the paper is divided into sections, and each member works individually on writing a section; all members participate in feedback and revision; one member edits final draft for consistent voice.

Regardless of your group’s approach, make sure to appoint individuals to lead meetings, to record meeting notes, and to edit the final product so that it’s more than several papers copied and pasted together.

Keeping Each Other Accountable

The most common challenge with group work is uneven division of labor.

Create a written agreement that details member responsibilities (some groups use a contract).
Create an agreed upon schedule for group meetings.
Agree to a method for making group decisions about revising and improving your paper.
Set due dates for rough drafts and final draft for group proofread.
Create a contact list for all members and agree to check regularly.
Keep a record of all communications: email, Microsoft Word, Slack, meeting notes, etc.
Communicate with your instructor about any concerns.

Collaborate with Technology

Apps like OneDrive, Slack, and Doodle make collaboration easier. Doodle allows members to enter their scheduling availability and generates mutually convenient times. OneDrive, available through your UARK account, allows members to share and edit files and cuts down on emailing and the need for multiple meetings. Slack is a messaging app for teams that also allows document sharing and archiving of communication.

Literature Review

Literature reviews will vary between disciplines and assignments, and there are several ways to write one, but the goal is, typically, to survey and thoroughly analyze a sampling of a body of research on a given topic.

There are two types of review:

Review of the literature: self-contained—the goal being to highlight and synthesize existing research

Lit Review: foundation for research—the goal being to introduce and build a framework for your primary research

Self-contained reviews of literature are often assigned to help students become familiar with a topic and/or scholarship in their field but can also be used to help students identify gaps in research or to identify future research.

A lit review as a foundation for research will cover specific content that is relevant to your research. This type of literature review typically falls between the introduction and the methods sections of your paper.

Parts of a Literature Review

Like any paper, a review of the literature and a lit review will have an introduction, body, and conclusion. If you are writing a review of the literature, the introduction and conclusion will take up more space, whereas the introduction and conclusion for a lit review may only be a few short sentences. However, keep in mind that each section will vary depending on your purpose.

Review of the Literature

Introduction

The introduction will be used to:

Explain the goals and methods of the research
Address key texts and topics that will appear in the review
Discuss your methods for finding sources and how you decided to include those sources in your review

Body

The body of a review of the literature will summarize and synthesize each scholarly source by analyzing and critically evaluating them. Once you have your sources, you will need to decide how to organize them in a way that makes the most sense for your purpose. Here are some conventional ways to organize:

Chronological — this method organizes sources by publication date
Thematic — this method organizes sources around a topic or issue rather than a date/time
Methodological — this method can help you organize your sources when they come from different fields of research; you can use this method to compare the different approaches in relation to their findings

Conclusion

The conclusion should wrap up the paper by:

Summarizing any key findings and highlighting their significance to your project
Point out any major gaps in the research and/or areas for future study
Provide an understanding of the relationship between your review of the literature and the larger area of scholarship/research

Lit Review

If you are writing a lit review, the introduction and conclusion may be just a few short sentences yet will follow the same general organization of a review of the literature. However, there is one additional method of organizing the body of your lit review:

Theoretical — this method can be used to explore a variety of definitions, theories, and models; this can be a good way to argue for a specific theoretical approach as a framework for your research

Strategies and Tips for Writing

It’s good to remember that, whether you’re writing a review of the literature or a lit review, you are not simply summarizing sources but synthesizing sources to show the relationships between each source and your purpose/research. Here are some things that can help you achieve this goal:

Determine your goal
Choose sources wisely — you want to make sure that the sources you choose are focused on your goal
Do as much research as you need to thoroughly represent your goal
Write an annotated bibliography as you go — this can help with writing the paper, but can also give you insight into how each source relates to other sources, which will help with synthesis
Use quotes conservatively — it's best to represent each source in your own words, when possible, which will make it easier to synthesize
When paraphrasing, be cautious and make sure you faithfully represent the original author’s meaning
Keep your voice front and center — while you may be synthesizing other’s ideas, the review of the literature/lit review is a presentation of your own ideas about a body of research
Finally: revise, revise, revise! It’s important to make sure you have met the goals set out at the beginning of the process, so revision is important to make sure your writing reflects those goals in the best way possible

Remember, a review of the literature/lit review will vary depending on what you’re being asked to do, or the goals you have set out for yourself, so it’s important to have a clear outline of your project. And if you need any help, you can always come see us at the Writing Studio!

Additional Resources

Writing a Literature Review | Purdue Owl

Learn how to write a review of literature | UW Madison

Literature Reviews | UNC CHAPEL HILL

Methods Paper

A methods section or paper should detail your methods of research. When conducting your research, you made a series of deliberate choices about what data to use, how to collect that data, and why it would be important. Here is where you finally get to explain that! Normally, the methods section of a research paper is what helps bring validity to the research presented because the methods section details how your research was conducted. By doing this, the research is presented in such a way that it could easily be peer reviewed or replicated to further prove the original research findings.

Writing a methods section might differ field to field, so this is a broad overview that can be adapted.

A methods section or paper should do a few things:

Describe actions taken to explore research question
Describe reasoning for specific procedures or techniques utilized to identify and analyze data
Allow reader to critically determine the validity of the research

Things to Avoid

Extra unneeded information. If the information doesn’t relate to the problem at hand, leave it out! When conducting research, you will often run into information that is interesting or important for another line of questioning, however, this information might not actually need to be presented with your research. Maybe it detracts or seems out of place when juxtaposed with your research.
Unless you use a unique, or unheard of technique, your methods section can leave out the basics of your method. This section needs to be detailed but it shouldn’t constitute a how-to guide.
If there are problems with your research, don’t ignore it! Offer suggestions and reasons for gaps in data or unforeseen issues. This will help round out your research and add validity.
This isn’t a literature review, but be sure to mention any important sources that ground your methodology. That said, this section should complement, rather than be, a list of sources.

Getting Started

To open your methods section, or paper, it is helpful to restate your research question. This helps acclimate the reader once again to the goal at hand. Then, mention and address any underlying ideas or assumptions that might accompany your work. The next step is to explain the methodological framework utilized. Normally, your specific field should have a variety of common frameworks and standards to follow. If you decide to branch out with an unfamiliar methodology for your field, be sure to explain that in your introduction.

Keep Going

The next couple of paragraphs should explain decisions that were made while analyzing or collecting data, tools and methods, how relevant variables were determined and analyzed, how data was processed, and specific tools or strategies employed to study the research question or hypothesis.

Other important points to keep in mind:

Make sure to introduce the overarching methodological approach of your research. Is your research qualitative, quantitative, both (mixed-methods), or maybe something completely new?
Be sure to explain how your specific approach applies to your individual question. What makes this approach suitable and appropriate for your specific research question? Why is this approach better than another approach?
Describe your specific modes of data collection and why they are important to your specific research question.
Explain how data was analyzed, or how you intend to analyze your data.
Explain any unfamiliar methodological frameworks or practices your reader might be unfamiliar with. Did you find a cool idea out of left field? Great! Explain it!
Be as clear and logical as possible.

Wrapping Things Up

In concluding your methods paper, or section, be sure to present limitations and rationale. Justify as much as you can: data, analysis techniques, findings. However, do not be afraid to explain limitations you faced and what could have been done better!

Helpful Resources

How to Write the Methods Section of your Research Paper | Kolabtree Blog

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper | Research Gate

How to Write an APA Methods Section | Scribbr

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper | PubMed

Works Consulted

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper | Dartmouth-Hitchcock Norris Cotton Cancer Center

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper | USC Libraries

Written by:

Allyson Layman, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Narrative Writing

Nursing students are required to complete writing assignments as part of the college curriculum. Most often these assignments fall within five genre types: personal narrative, expository, persuasive, comparative, and cause and effect. For nursing students to succeed, they should develop a comprehensive understanding of the purposes of these genres, their forms, and how to write them with precision and accuracy.

Personal Narratives

Purposes

Personal narrative writing provides an outlet for people to process the world around them. People in high-stress jobs or who have experienced traumatic experiences are encouraged to write their stories so they can process their feelings and gain perspective on a given situation. Nursing students may be asked to participate in personal narrative writing as they begin engaging with patients or encounter high-stress situations.

Secondly, studies show that as medical clinicians develop narrative competency, they are more adept at recognizing, interpreting, and acting on the plights of others (Charon 2010). These are critical skills for nurses to develop because they frequently engage with patients seeking answers to medical problems.

Thirdly, narrative writing aids in the composition of workplace documents such as personal statements and cover letters. Competently writing these documents can mean the difference when seeking a job, promotion, or entrance into a program or college.

Personal Narrative Forms

Personal narratives are written in first person (“I”) narrative and most often have a beginning, middle, and end. Sometimes they have a theme, but they always have a clear purpose. This purpose may be made apparent by the instructor, potential employer, or program director, and other times the purpose of a personal narrative is left up to the writer.

Personal Statements

A personal statement is an applicant's opportunity to introduce themselves to a selective committee. This committee may be potential employers, college or program admittance committees, or any other committee that belongs to an organization for which an applicant is seeking to become a part of.

Personal statements should include:

A clear and distinct purpose
Depict a picture of the applicant’s authentic self
Describe the contributions the applicant can bring to the organization
Describes why it makes sense for the applicant to join this organization.

Furthermore, the personal statement should reflect a positive, engaging, and invested tone and invite the reader to meet with the applicant (Loyola).

Personal statements should not contain a list of qualifications. Typically, a committee will obtain this information in a resume or VITA. Instead of listing qualifications, applicants may want to highlight a qualification by describing a time they successfully used that qualification to complete an assignment or project.

Cover Letters

Cover letters are most often drafted when someone is seeking a job, internship, promotion, or entrance into a program or college and are accompanied by a resume or VITA. Despite their varying purposes, cover letters all have similar structures including a masthead, address of the future employer or program/school director, and a formal greeting. Body paragraphs speak to the purpose of the letter, one’s qualifications for the job, internship, promotion, or entrance into a program or college, and a request for further consideration including an interview if appropriate. The body paragraphs are followed by a closing such as “Sincerely” or “Best regards” and the name and contact information of the applicant.

Writing Tips

Personal narrative assignments and workplace documents should always use clear, concise, and accurate language. Refrain from using jargon and unnecessary words. Personal narrative writing outside of academia and the workplace, however, does not have to adhere to these same constraints.
Personal narratives should represent a person accurately; there is no place for error or embellishments in personal statements and cover letters.
Understand the purpose and instructions of a document so you can convey only the information that is asked for.
If you are having difficulty writing a cover letter or personal statement, reread the assignment instructions and identify the purpose of the assignment. Otherwise, use a prompt to help you identify personal qualities you have that are consistent with the company, program, or college’s mission statement and the kind of person they are looking to hire or accept.
Always proofread and revise. Having someone else read your documents can help you find errors and ways to improve the effectiveness of your document.

Essays

Purposes

Students and employees are frequently required to research and synthesize information and organize findings in forms that are recognizable to their target audiences. The purposes for doing this may be to demonstrate an understanding of a concept or idea, to provide reasonable evidence that supports a claim or concern, or to show cause and effect relationships.

Regardless of the purpose of essay, they have similar structure and format.

An introductory paragraph and thesis statement
Body paragraphs that speak to the topic and purpose of the essay
Evidence to support their claims
A concluding paragraph that recaps the thesis statement and findings
A works cited page

Essay writers often use common rhetorical devices to convey their messages:

Pathos, logos, ethos, and kairos
Transitional words and phrases
Headings and subheadings

Forms

Expository Essays

An expository essay informs the reader about a specific topic. This requires the writer to investigate the idea, evaluated the evidence, and then expounds on the idea (Purdue Owl). There are four ways a writer can choose to convey their findings:

Comparing and contrasting
Defining
Providing examples
Analyzing cause and effect

Regardless of how one chooses to convey information about an idea, expository essays have a clear purpose and structure with logical transitions between the introductory paragraph and thesis statement, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. Evidence is included to support claims made by the writer.

Persuasive

In a persuasive essay the writer encourages the reader to take a specific view or action by providing a compelling argument. Before writing, the writer must

Do extensive research
Evaluate their own biases
Explore both sides of the issue

Sources

Writing Guide for Nurses | NurseJournal

Written by:

Jessica Allee, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Outline

An outline can be a useful tool for planning a paper or a presentation. Writers use both informal and formal outlines to generate, manage, and sequence ideas.

Read the instructor’s assignment prompt to make sure you understand all requirements. Then draft a working thesis before you begin to outline. Remember you can modify a working thesis.

Informal Outline

An informal outline is a paper plan that briefly lists your key supporting points and evidence for each point. Begin the process by brainstorming a general list using words and phrases. List the ideas and supporting points as they come to mind.

Example of an Informal Outline

Combine your Ideas

An example for a paper on the Electoral College follows:

Choosing electors—how process began
Protection against “tyranny of the majority”
Winner-take-all: minority not represented
Four times president did not win popular vote
Swing states v. safe states
Faithless electors could go rogue
Promotes compromise and prevents splinter parties
Prevents “regional” lopsidedness
Gallup poll: 63% favored abolishing EC (2013)

Look for relationships between the ideas. Should some ideas be grouped together? Do some support others? How might you create a logical order?

Next, combine your working thesis statement with an informal outline—an attempt to group the ideas above into an informal plan for your paper.

Informal Outline

Thesis: The Electoral College system, an unfair and outdated approach to electing a U.S. president, should be abolished and replaced with the popular vote.

History of Electoral College

Protection against “tyranny of the majority”

Electors allocated based on senators and reps

Disadvantages

Unfairly weighted: minority not represented

Candidates only campaign in “swing states”

Faithless electors could “go rogue”

President has won without popular vote (four times)

Gallup poll: 63% favor abolishing EC (2013)

Advantages

Prevents splinter parties & promotes consensus

Prevents lopsided election based on regional majorities

The student has grouped together advantages and disadvantages of the Electoral College system. She has a good working plan to begin writing. After the first draft, the writer may find she needs to alter sequence, add another source, or adjust the thesis. The purpose of the informal outline is to create a working plan to get the paper started.

Formal Outline

For some papers and presentations, you will need to create a formal outline. Formal outlines are especially useful when planning long research papers. The formal outline also begins with a thesis statement. The formal outline has multiple levels of heading (I, II; A, B; 1, 2, etc.), and at each level you write complete (formal) statements.

Structure

Thesis statement

First Point
1. Supporting Evidence
  1. Example of Evidence
  2. Example of Evidence
2. Supporting Evidence
Second Point
1. Supporting Evidence
  1. Example of Evidence
  2. Example of Evidence
2. Supporting Evidence . . . etc.

Example

The following example is based on the Electoral College topic used above.

Thesis: The Electoral College system, an unfair and outdated approach to electing a U.S. president, should be abolished and replaced with the popular vote.

The Electoral College is a federalist system developed by the U.S. founding fathers.
1. Madison and Hamilton argued that the “tyranny of the majority” ruined democracies.
  1. These political philosophers argued for a check against popular will.
  2. Their motivating concern was protection of property.
2. Electors were allocated based on senators and representatives.
  1. Each state got two electors per senator and one for every congressman.
  2. Small states were “protected” from oppression by larger ones.

The writer continues the formal outlining pattern above for the entire paper. In addition to helping provide a plan for drafting, the formal outlining process also helps to identify any areas where additional evidence and support or additional research is needed.

Reverse Outline

Some writers prefer to write a first draft without outlining. Many students who forego outlining write a first draft that has good ideas but lacks organization and development. Reverse outlining is a step performed after the first draft to aid in planning.

Read the draft and beside each paragraph, write a brief description of the main idea and evidence. If you find more than one main idea in the paragraph, record both (or all). When you complete the process, you will have an informal outline. Review the outline to see where you need to reorganize, add supporting points and evidence, or combine main points. Many writers use reverse outlining as a planning tool for revision.

Works Consulted

Bullock, Richard and Francine Weinberg. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Handbook. 2^ndNew York: Norton &

Company, 2009. Print.

Lewis, Tyler. “Why We Should Abolish the Electoral College.” TheHuffingtonPost.com. The Huffington Post. 12 Jan. 2016.

Web. 7 July 2016.

Ross, Tara. “The Electoral College: Enlightened Democracy.” Legal Memorandum #15 on Legal Issues. Heritage.org. The

Heritage Foundation. 1 Nov. 2004. Web. 7 July 2016.

Ruszkiewicz, John J. and Jay T. Dolmage. How to Write Anything: A Guide and Reference. 2^ndBoston: Bedford/St.

Martin’s, 2012. Print.

Saad, Lydia. “Americans Call for Term Limits, End to Electoral College.” Gallup.com. Gallup. 18 Jan. 2013. Web. 6 July

2016.

Personal Statement

Most graduate school applications require a personal statement, and many academic advisors say statements are as important as letters of recommendation, GRE scores, and transcripts. This handout outlines strategies designed to help prospective graduate students begin the writing process.

Read the Prompt

Most graduate schools ask statement writers to compose an essay in response to a prompt. Read carefully. Some ask several questions, some just one. You also will want to check for any other instructions, such as word count and formatting. Here is a prompt from the History Department at the University of Arkansas:

“Applicants must submit . . . a statement of purpose of no more than 1000 words, which details your preparation for your intended field of study. Report any relevant language training, indicate with whom you wish to pursue your research project, and feature any experience you have with archival research or substantial academic writing (e.g. thesis).”

Notice the several areas the essay must cover and the department’s interest in the applicant’s past as preparation for graduate study. Here is a 500-word application essay prompt from the MBA program at Indiana University:

“Discuss your immediate post-MBA professional goals. How will your professional experience, when combined with a Kelley MBA degree, allow you to achieve these goals? Should the short- term goals you have identified not materialize, what alternate career paths might you consider?”

This essay writer must discuss goals while answering two questions, keep the essay focused on future plans, and work with only 500 words. Because prompts vary from program to program, writers won’t always be able to recycle statements when applying to several schools.

Know Where You are Applying

Do your homework. In both prompts above, the writers are asked to show how they fit into the culture: “indicate with whom you wish to pursue your research” and “how will your experience ... combined with a Kelly MBA degree, allow you to achieve these goals?” You’ll need to be familiar with the programs and faculty to engage these kinds of questions.

Brainstorm

List and list much more than you could possibly fit in your statement. If you have a 500-word limit, brainstorm 5,000 words of ideas. Create options for yourself and then begin to select. How can you answer the prompt most effectively?

Arrive at a Central Idea

Good statements, like good compositions of any kind, are centered on a theme. That main idea is going to guide your writing. Is it a trait, a behavior, a skill, a value, a focus, a commitment—what main idea will you develop through the statement, while answering the prompt?

Organization & Style

Your statement should be organized around an opening and closing paragraph, and several body paragraphs that help you develop your theme and answer the prompt. Write unified paragraphs with clear topic sentences. Many personal statement writers combine narrative and essay genres, an effective technique. When you tell a story to make a point, explain its significance—the reason you shared the story. Use specific examples and details to illustrate your points. Provide your readers with memorable content; your application is in a competition. You don’t know your audience and want them to admit and teach you, so your tone should be respectful. Word choices and style should be natural, but not informal. Avoid humor, no snark.

Drafting

Plan on writing multiple drafts. Most writers say the statement is a difficult document. The first person, which you will use throughout, is unfamiliar to many student writers. Others find the exercise uncomfortably egotistical, at first, but soon discover the difference between confidence and bragging. In the early stages, allow yourself to write well past the character limit, and don’t be alarmed by organizational problems. By drafting, seeking feedback from trusted readers, and revising, you will find your way forward.

Additional Pointers

Write a compelling opening that captures attention and establishes your theme and direction.
After telling a story or recounting an experience, connect its significance to the statement.
Help the readers understand why you want to enroll in their program.
Demonstrate your commitment to the area of study and professional pursuit.
Share the traits and experiences that establish you as qualified.
Use direct and concise language. Avoid the ornate, figurative, and clichéd.

Other resources

If you need additional help, visit these sites:

Purdue University’s OWL: Writing the Personal Statement
Personal Statement help from admissions consultants
Graduate School – Statement at Cal Berkeley
Tips and sample essays

Proposal

A proposal is simply a document that tries to persuade a reader to implement, authorize, or extend a project.

Types of Proposals

Solicited

A proposal requested by a sponsor that has specific requirements

Unsolicited

A proposal that has not been requested but is believed to be important/significant by the proposer

Preproposals

A brief letter or abstract requested by a sponsor to minimize effort (once this is submitted, the proposer may be asked to submit a full proposal)

Continuation or non-competing proposal

A proposal that seeks to continue the support of a project after the initial end date by confirming the original proposal as well as showing reasonable progress

Renewal or competing proposal

A proposal that requests continuing support for an existing project; typically seen as an unsolicited proposal

Research proposal

A proposal that presents and justifies the need for a research study as well as presenting the ways the study will be conducted

Writing the Proposal

The following information is geared toward a solicited research proposal; keep in mind that a proposal will need to follow the guidelines suggested by the solicitor/professor.

Components of a Proposal

Not all proposals will include each of these components.

Introduction: should state the problem as well as the purpose and significance of the research; should also give enough background information that any audience would be able to put your research into context.
Background: similar to a literature review, this section shows how your research will build upon, but is also different from, past research.
Description of proposed research: this section should give a thorough explanation of what can be accomplished, the focus of the research, and the methods you will use in your research; don’t forget to be concise while also making the connections between the research objectives and methods clear.
Conclusion: this short section should reiterate the significance of your research and why it is unique from past research.
Citations/references: consult with your professor/instructor as to their preference for this section.

What To Do

To begin, ask yourself questions about what you want to study and why:

What is the significance of the topic?
Will it help solve a problem?
How does it build on previous research?
What is my plan? What is my timetable?
Can I get this project done in that time?

Once you’ve answered those questions, write a sentence or two summarizing the proposal—this can help you organize your thoughts and may eventually be used in your introduction as a thesis statement.

Know your audience—typically, with solicited proposals, you’ll know who you’re writing to, but it is always a good idea to keep the reader’s needs, values, and attitudes in mind; if writing an unsolicited proposal, this is very important to keep in mind.

Always be clear and concise—do not use flowery language, stick to the facts.

What Not To Do

Do not use flowery language
Do not use language/jargon your audience won’t understand
Do not leave out any critical information—your reader/audience must make the connections you need them to make in order to authorize/enact your proposal

Sources

Writing a Successful Proposal | Babson

Writing a Research Proposal | USC Libraries

Writing a Research Proposal | Illinois Library

Written by:

Michel LaCrue, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Reaction Paper

A reaction paper is typically a 2-5 page document in which the writer responds to one or more texts. Reaction papers are often used as tools in a class-setting to encourage students to think critically about texts, and how those texts are in conversation with each other, or with a wider field of discourse. Reaction papers can also be used to generate ideas for a research paper. Skills used in a reaction paper include: summary, analysis, and synthesis. A reaction paper may or may not feature a conclusion. Unlike in some other forms of academic writing, it is OK to use the personal “I” in a reaction paper.

Summary

Reaction papers usually start with a brief summary of the text(s) that will be discussed in the paper. It is necessary to include the title and author(s) for each text. A summary in a reaction paper should capture the thesis statement or main argument/idea from the text within a few sentences. However, because the main purpose of the reaction paper is to analyze and synthesize the discussed texts, it is important that the summary section is not too long; one paragraph is usually sufficient. Also, make sure to keep the summary strictly factual by avoiding opinion words such as “good”, “bad”, “convincing”, “flawed”, etc.

Summary example:

The Acta Psychologica, February 2010 article “When a Picasso is a “Picasso”: The entry point in the identification of visual art” describes a study conducted by researchers to investigate whether or not art is distinguished from “real world objects” in human cognition and memory. The study consisted of three experiments which collectively indicate that “the artist’s name has a special status in the memorial representation of visual art”.

Analysis

The analysis section is where the writer explores their reaction to the paper. Sometimes professors will guide students in their reactions by giving them a set of questions to address, but this is not always the case. A useful way to begin thinking about the analysis is to use the “They say / I say” format: first, describe or quote an idea from the paper (“They say”), then state your reaction (“I say”). Your reaction may be in the form of agreement, disagreement, qualified agreement/disagreement (“I agree with X but disagree with Y”), as well as questions, criticisms, and emotional responses (how the text made you feel). It is important to provide an explanation for each of your reactions.

Analysis example:

Ullyat argues that reading Mary Oliver’s poetry through a Budhhist lens shows the poet’s preoccupation with the concept of “mindfulness.” While I was not familiar with the idea of “mindfulness,” I found Ullyat’s arguments convincing. I especially noted her discussion of “Nowness - which constitutes being fully present in the here-and-now.” This is a theme in Oliver’s poetry that I had also noted in my reading of the collection Why I Wake at Dawn.

Synthesis

The synthesis section is where the writer discusses how the text(s) relate to each other and/or to their larger discursive field. Comparing and contrasting the texts can be a useful way to begin thinking about how the texts relate to each other. A writer can also bring in outside information, such as from class lectures or previous readings. For example, the writer may note if the text adds additional information to an idea previously presented in class, explains an idea in a different way, or contradicts an idea.

Synthesis example:

While Tannen’s book You Just Don’t Understand argues that men and women have inherently different communication patterns, James and Drakich’s review of 56 studies on gender and communication found that 34 studies claimed men talk more than women, and 20 studies either found no difference or no conclusive results. This suggests that the divide between men and women’s communication styles may not be as distinct as Tannen claims.

Additional Resources

Writing a Response or Reaction Paper | Hunter College

Written by:

Mar Stratford, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Reflection Paper

A reflection is a piece of writing that allows you to share your personal experiences with a given piece or collection of content. This content could be a piece of writing such as an article, a piece of art such as a symphony, or collection of experiences such as an event or a time period.

Purpose

A reflection addresses your interactions with a text or piece of content. It should tell the story of how you experienced the main themes and concepts as well as how these main themes and concepts interact with your own ideas and values.

What is a reflection NOT?

A reflective piece of writing is not a journal or “mind dump”. Journals can be stream-of-consciousness, loosely organized, written in everyday language, and emotionally driven. Reflections and journals are both writings about personal (and often emotional) experiences; however, reflections are still academic pieces of writing that require organization, academic language and tone, and inclusion of intellectual experiences as well.

Reflections are also not research papers. Although they may include research, the goal of a reflection is not to present disembodied ideas to a reader or to educate them. The goal is to share a story about your relationship with the content. Therefore, unlike research papers, reflections can include opinions and personal assumptions, and they are written in first person.

Finally, reflections are not first-person book reports. Regurgitating the material in your own words does not make a paper reflective. A reflective paper focuses on how you experience, understand, and apply the information. It is not a play-by-play of what that content includes.

Hold up! I'm ________________, so how can I write a reflection paper?

The beauty of a reflection paper

Not a very intellectual thinker
1. A reflection paper is a great place to start exploring your own thoughts and ideas without having to dive head-first into the heavy content.
2. Start by considering these questions:
  1. What did I assume about this content before I read it?
  2. What did I know about this content before I read it?
  3. What do I think of it now?/What did I learn?
  4. How can I think or live differently now that I have experienced/learned this content?
Not a very emotional, ushy-gushy person
1. Sometimes students feel that professors only like their reflections if they are deep and personal. For people who do not want to write out their heart, mind, and soul in a paper someone else is going to read, consider these things:
  1. Recognize that personal does not have to mean private!
    1. Decide what you are comfortable sharing. Maybe you do not want to share how this affected you emotionally, but you might be okay sharing how you found ways to connect this knowledge with your field of study.
  2. Focus on the intellectual side and stay true to yourself! Maybe you focus more on the application side of the piece of content instead of focusing on your experience. The beauty of reflection papers is that they allow you to do both!
Confused about where to start
1. Use the questions listed above!
2. Take time to reflect. Go on a walk. Or record yourself talking and see if you can find some main themes.
3. Write an awful first draft (stream of consciousness, journal style maybe) and then read through and see if anything is worth keeping.

Thesis

Since this is a reflection paper, it doesn’t need a thesis does it?

It DOES need a thesis! Even a reflection paper needs a guiding theme or a main topic to keep it grounded. This can be written in an argument summary sentence called a thesis. This does not have to be stated explicitly (although it is often helpful for professors when it is.)

Some examples of what this might look like:

I assumed that____, but after reading_______ I now believe/realized that____
1. Ex. I assumed that all classics were outdated and inapplicable to my life, but after reading Brother’s Karamozov, I realized that the questions we humans have about our place in the world are the same throughout all ages.
Although I expected_____, I actually found______
1. Although I expected Intro to Statistics to be boring, I actually found that it connected with many of my interests.
This experience taught me/will allow me to_______. OR This experience was meaningful because it _____
1. Watching Sometimes in April allowed me to understand the experience of people who have lived through genocide and reminded me of the importance of questioning our bias toward others.
2. Attending the workshop on pottery allowed me to connect what I had learned in class to a real life setting.

Editing & Revising

Like any paper, you will want to look at the content and the context of the paper.

Content

Did I incorporate key themes from the piece of content?
Did I display an accurate understanding of key concepts?
Did I address my assumptions, thoughts, and feelings toward these themes and concepts?
- Did I link these themes and concepts to my current of future life?
Were my claims supported by evidence (AKA examples from my experience or from the content)?
Is my thesis clear (even if not explicitly stated)?

Context

Did I use first person?
Did I address the appropriate audience?
Did I maintain a consistent academic tone?
Did I follow the rubric and proper length?
Did I use proper citations, formatting, and grammar?

Additional Resources

Tips on Writing a Reflection Paper | Nashua Community College

IIRP Tips on Writing Reflection Papers | IIRP Graduate School

How to Write a Reflection Paper | Trent University

Written by:

Amelia TaraJane House, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Results Section or Paper

Purpose

To report the results of your research based on the methodologies you applied; to break down data into sentences and diagrams that show significance to your research questions.

Structure

An introduction of the research problem in your study.
Report on data collection, recruitment, and participants.
Summary of key findings in a logical order that follows your methodology section.
Report of important secondary findings.
Figures, charts, tables, maps, and other non-textual elements that help present your findings.

Approach

Consider how your results fit into your overall narrative and report the most important results first.
Present a set of results followed by a brief explanation before moving on to another set of results and explanation, and so on and so forth.
State your findings without bias or interpretation. Your results do not prove anything. They confirm or reject the hypothesis or research problem you are proposing.
Arrange your findings in a logical sequence. Be factual and concise.
Write in past tense.
Present large data collections and exact values in tables and graphs.
Use figures to display trends and relationships found in the results.

Things to Remember

Do not interpret your results. Save this for the discussion section of your paper. You may, however, compare your results to the results of similar studies.
Do not provide additional background information. Avoid providing unnecessary information that may have been stated in other sections of your paper.
Do not repeat the same data or information found in other sections of your paper. You may remind your reader of the conceptual hypothesis or question you are answering, but refrain from word-for-word repetitions.
Do not ignore negative results. Be honest and unbiased in communicating your findings. You can discuss why negative results emerged in the discussion section of your paper.
Label non-textual elements such as tables and figures appropriately. Each figure should contain a heading and be chronologically numbered (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2).
Proofread. Look for grammar and punctuation errors as well as conveyance of textual and non-textual (tables, graphs, figures, etc.) diagrams for conciseness and clarity.

Sources

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results. Research Guides. (n.d.). https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931M

Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). Experimental Reports 2 // Purdue Writing Lab. Purdue Writing Lab Results Section.

Sacred Heart University. (n.d.). Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results. Research Guides. https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185931

Resume

Research

To maximize your chances of landing an interview, you should tailor your resume to each job listing. Research the company where you will apply:

Search the website, annual report, or other publications for keywords the company uses to describe its mission and goals.
Contact the company's human resources department to pose specific questions about the position.
Find more tips on researching a company at the Offices of Career Connections.

Generate Ideas

Brainstorming our full range of skills is an important step in shaping an attention-grabbing resume.

Read the job listing carefully; highlight all keywords describing responsibilities, skills, and traits.
List all accomplishments and awards you have attained; then pick those relevant to the position.
List projects you have participated in or completed (research studies, volunteer work etc.), and then pick those most relevant to the position.
List qualities the company is looking for; then list ways you have demonstrated those qualities.
Review your academic and job history; list experiences that match the company's values and needs.

Formatting

The Offices of Career Connections offers templates for resume development. The format of your resume can vary and depends on a number of factors such as the field of study and the number of experiences you have had.

Resume Sections

Successful resumes contain most or all of the following sections:

Name and Contact Information: Full name, address, phone number, and email
Summary of Qualifications: An optional section, a summary of qualifications is a brief section that appears at the beginning of a resume. It should briefly describe your experience and focus on the strengths you possess that match the position description.
Education: List post-secondary institutions, degrees, and academic accomplishments (high GPA, scholarships, honors, publications). If still attending, write “Expected graduation June 2018.”
Work Experience: Where you worked and when (month and year). Include your title. List in bullet points your key responsibilities. Begin with active verbs. List any key accomplishments or awards.
Skills and Qualifications: List skills relevant to the position and company; describe them in ways that satisfy the company’s agenda and concerns.
Activities and Honors: List any important public recognitions or awards.

A note about references: If the employer wants to contact your previous supervisors, they will notify you. References do not need to be included on a resume. References should be in a separate document from your resume.

Language

As you begin drafting and revising, make sure your language reflects the company’s ethics and priorities. If the company cares about “creativity” and “innovation,” those words should appear somewhere in your document. If the company “puts family and ethics first,” emphasize aspects of your background that reveal your commitment to those priorities.

Style

Employers have limited time to review application documents. They form a first impression after scanning a resume for just a few seconds, so you need to present a polished, flawless document. Write clear and concise statements that communicate the essential background information relevant to the advertised position.

Resources

The University of Arkansas Offices of Career Connections helps students throughout the job search process and can help you improve your resume and cover letter.
Purdue University’s OWL Resume Workshop provides useful suggestions.

Rhetorical Analysis

A rhetorical analysis essay breaks a work of non-fiction, such as an essay, speech, cartoon, advertisement or performance, into parts and explains how the parts work together to persuade, entertain, or inform an audience. While identifying these parts is important, evaluating their effectiveness in meeting the author’s objective(s) is equally essential.

Parts of any text include rhetorical strategies, appeals, and/or devices. Each has a distinct purpose. Depending on the rhetorical situation (author, subject, purpose, exigence, audience), authors will choose to use specific rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices to increase the likelihood that their message will be effectively conveyed to their audience. The first step in writing a rhetorical analysis essay is reading the work of non-fiction closely and identify strategies, appeals, and devices.

Rhetorical Strategies

The ways authors organize evidence and make connections between their audience and the information they provide. Here are some examples:

Cause and effect
Comparing and contrasting
Classifying and dividing
Defining
Describing
Explaining a process
Narrating

Rhetorical Appeals

Persuasive strategies authors use to support their claims or respond to arguments. The four rhetorical appeals are logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos.

Logos - appeals to logic
Pathos - appeals to emotion
Ethos - appeals to ethics
Kairos - appeals to time/timeliness of an argument

Rhetorical Devices

Techniques, devices, and figurative language used for the purpose of conveying information. Here are ten commonly used rhetorical devices with their definitions taken from Literary Devices:

Alliteration: a literary device that reflects repetition in two or more nearby words of initial consonant sounds.
Analogy: a figure of speech that creates a comparison by showing how two seemingly different entities are alike
Anaphora: a rhetorical device that features repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive sentences, phrases, or clauses.
Epiphora: a stylistic device in which a word or a phrase is repeated at the ends of successive clauses. Chiasmus: a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic
Euphemism: a figure of speech commonly used to replace a word or phrase that is related to a concept which might make others uncomfortable.
Idiom: a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words; the phrase is understood to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply.
Metaphor: a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things.
Personification: a figure of speech in which inanimate objects and ideas are given human attributes.
Similes: a figure of speech in which two essentially dissimilar objects or concepts are expressly compared with one another through the use of “like” or “as.”

Evaluating the Effectiveness

After identifying rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices, determine their effectiveness at conveying information and meeting the writer’s objective(s) by asking the following questions:

What is the author’s purpose for writing?
Does the author clearly aim to persuade, entertain, or inform their audience?
Do the rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices consistently support the writer’s objective(s)?
Does the author use any rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices inappropriately? If so, how?
Are there any other rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices the author should have used to convey their message and meet their objective(s)?

Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Essay

A rhetorical analysis essay is organized very similarly to other essays. It should include an introduction, body, and conclusion.

The introduction should tell your readers what you will be doing in your essay, provide relevant background information, and present your thesis statement.

The body is where you provide analysis of how the author conveyed their message. This can be done by presenting the differing parts or the rhetorical strategies, appeals, and devices and then describing how effectively (or ineffectively) the author uses these techniques to convey their message and meet their objective(s). Only list and analyze the most important parts. You may also describe in this portion of the essay a rhetorical strategy, appeal, or device an author neglected to use that would have helped them be more effective at meeting their objective(s).

The conclusion should restate the main argument and recap the analysis. Refrain from word-for-word repetition and aim to leave a positive last impression.

What a Rhetorical Analysis Essay is NOT

Although you may use pieces of text from the non-fiction work in your essay to show how an author uses a rhetorical strategy, appeal, or device and how these parts work together, a rhetorical analysis essay is not a summary. It also is not an argumentative essay; you should not take a stance on the argument presented. You should explore how the essay is constructed and if the parts of the essay are effective at presenting information and meeting the author’s objective(s) for communicating.

References

30+ Rhetorical Devices Everyone MUST Know. Reedsy. (2019, January 11). https://blog.reedsy.com/rhetorical-devices/.

Caulfield, J. (2020, December 10). How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis: Key Concepts & Examples. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/rhetorical-analysis/.

Literary Devices and Literary Terms - The Complete List. Literary Devices. (2020, August 8). https://literarydevices.net/.

The Norton Reader Toolbar. (n.d.). https://wwnorton.com/college/english/write/read12/toolbar/set02.aspx.

Written by:

Jessica Allee, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Scholarship Essay

Writing a scholarship essay can feel overwhelming and daunting, but unlike other academic genres, it can be a chance to use your own voice and be rewarded for it. Scholarship essays are a great opportunity to show who you are and tell your story to make a lasting impression on your audience. This page outlines the process of planning and writing an effective scholarship essay.

How do I get started?

First, read the essay question(s). Familiarize yourself with the prompt and begin thinking about how you can answer the questions.  

For a general scholarship essay, here are some questions you might think about before you start writing:  

Why am I applying for this scholarship? What difference will it make in my life?
What are my goals and hopes? How have I worked towards them in my academic and professional career, and how do I plan to accomplish them?
Why am I a good fit for this scholarship? What makes me stand out from other applicants?

If you find it helpful, you can create an outline, use a basic template for general scholarships, or just jot down some quick bullet points with what you’re planning to say in your essay.

How do I organize it?

Scholarship essays usually follow a typical essay structure, meaning there is an introduction, a middle with body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Introduction

Start with a hook, or a sentence or two to grab the reader’s attention. Avoid cliché beginnings, such as overused quotes and Merriam-Webster dictionary definitions. A good hook might be an anecdote from your childhood that connects to the prompt, a detailed description of the time you realized your ideal career path, or a rhetorical question you want the audience to consider while reading.

Body Paragraphs

Your body paragraphs should provide specific evidence and examples that answer all the questions from the prompt. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph, and use transitions between paragraphs to connect your ideas.

Conclusion

Don’t end your essay without a conclusion. A good conclusion is the bow on top of your essay that ties everything together. In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction, sum up the important points of your body paragraphs, restate or clarify your thesis, and/or answer the “So What?” question—after reading your essay, your reader should be able to answer why your essay and what you wrote matters. For a scholarship essay, the answer to “So What?” might be why you deserve this scholarship or how it will help you achieve your future goals.

How can I make it better?

Other Important Tips

Know your audience. Research the organization or group offering the scholarship, and make sure your application fits their goals and mission. For example, you wouldn’t want to apply for a scholarship for future bankers if you’re planning on becoming a social worker.   

Remember that you’re telling a story: yours. The reader should finish with a clear picture of who you are and why you are a perfect fit for this scholarship based on your experiences and accomplishments. This is a chance to sell yourself a little while staying humble.  

Be concise, but always make sure you answer all the questions from the prompt!  

Finally, before you submit your essay, proofread it carefully for typos and grammatical errors.  

Note: Many scholarship essays ask you to discuss your financial need. This can feel uncomfortable, but just remember to be honest and be positive. You can include your personal or family background (such as if you’re the first person in your family to attend college), any financial difficulties you or your family have experienced, how you’re currently paying for college, and how the scholarship will help your financial situation. 

Resources

Scholarship Application Essay Tips | Pierce College

Scholarship Essay Worksheet | Sinclair College

Slideshow Presentation

Slideshows can enhance or detract from presentations and aid in the success or failure of the conveyance of your ideas. Understanding the purpose of slideshows and abiding by the following guidelines will help you create a slideshow that is sure to be a showstopper!

The Purpose of Slideshows

Slideshows act as visual aids, highlighting important information associated with an idea, topic, or sales pitch. They accompany presentations or supplement speeches, lectures, and lessons. For example, instructors will sometimes use slideshows to highlight important points as they lecture, or they may use slideshows to convey information to be read outside of class. Other times slideshows accompany speeches, bringing the audience’s attention on the most important ideas. In any case, slideshows should always enhance the audience’s understanding of the presenter’s ideas.

Creating Your Presentation

Be Organized

Develop a layout that is orderly and free of unnecessary words and images. Slide show software such as Power Point, Google Slides, Prezi, and Camtasia offer layout templates. However, you also have the option of designing your own layout. Whatever you choose to do, try to create a consistent feel between slides and avoid using too many colors and font choices.

Be Consistent With Fonts, Colors, and Tone of Voice

Never use more than two different font styles per presentation and create a consistent color palette and tone of voice. Fonts and colors reflect the tonality of your presentation and aid in readability. Develop a tone of voice that is consistent and compliments your presentation and relationship with the audience such as serious vs. playful, conversational vs. professional.

Choose Fonts, Colors, and Contrast Wisely

Some color palettes and font choices are preferred over others because they are easier to read and convey different emotions. For example, bright colors evoke positive feelings, whereas darker colors evoke more serious feelings.

Some font choices and sizes are easier to read than others. These fonts include sans-serif fonts such as Helvetica, Avant Garde, Arial, and Geneva and should be a minimum of 28 points. Additionally, you should provide good contrast between text and background colors to increase readability.

Too much contrast such as black text against a white background is not recommended by the ADA (Americans with Disability Act), because it can result in blurred or moving text for some readers.

Address One Idea Per Slide

Applying the “one idea per slide” rule to your slideshow presentation will increase the impact of your remarks. It will also prevent your audience from getting lost or distracted from what you are saying.

Minimize Text

Text should act as headlines and not as news articles. Slides should include no more than 6-8 lines and have a maximum of 30 words per slide.

Use Impactful Images

Every image should be relevant and reflect similar tone. Caption an image if there is any question as to what it is or how it relates to the presentation.

Use White Space Appropriately

White space, also known as negative space and blank space, is the empty space surrounding text and images. Creating white space helps keep content clear and easier to read by focusing the audience’s attention on key information.

Proofread and Edit

Slideshows that are cluttered with mistakes detract the audience from your messages and cast doubt on your credibility. Proofread for punctuation and grammar errors. Also look for design flaws that distract your audience or are unnecessary. In addition to proofreading and editing your own slideshow, have someone else examine it and provide feedback for enhancing your slideshow’s readability.

Practice, Practice, Practice

Practicing will help you rely less on the slides for cues resulting in a smoother presentation.

Presenting Your Slideshow

You are the Presenter, Not Your Slideshow

Too often people rely on slideshows to lead them through a presentation when the purpose and most effective way to use a slideshow is to let the slideshow aid in delivering content.

Don't Read Slides Word for Word

Try to elaborate on the information in the slides and do it in your own words. This requires that you know what is on each slide, what more you want to convey, and the order in which the slides are presented.

Get the Audience Involved

There are several ways to do this. One way is by keeping what you know about your audience in mind when you create your slideshow. Use diction and information that speaks to the audience. Asking the audience questions during the presentation is another good way to get them involved with your content. And lastly, make sure your slideshow is organized and consistent.

Sources

Google Slides: The ULTIMATE guide. BrightCarbon. (n.d.). https://www.brightcarbon.com/blog/google-slides-ultimate-guide/.

Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). PowerPoint Quick Start // Purdue Writing Lab. Purdue Writing Lab, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/visual_rhetoric/designing_effective_powerpoint_presentations/index.html.

Nediger, M. (2021, January 12). Presentation Design Guide: How to Summarize Information for Presentations. Venngage. https://venngage.com/blog/presentation-design/.

Written by:

Jessica Allee, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

SOAP Notes

SOAP refers to a common template healthcare providers use to document sessions or evaluations. Although different work settings include different information in their SOAP notes, the following are some general guidelines for what a SOAP note should (and should not) include.

Overview & Purpose

In the professional world, a SOAP note serves two purposes:

Providing Written Proof of What You Did and Observed

This is important because it could help you keep track of scores or goals, might be required from your employer, and in many settings, might be crucial to getting your work reimbursed by insurance. It also makes sure there is proof of what happened in case your documentation or work comes under review. Sometimes SOAP notes are even brought into court! It is very important that your SOAP notes are accurate!

Communicating With Your Teammates

SOAP notes are a common way for healthcare and other teams to organize information they need to share with each other when they are working together or taking over where someone else left off. SOAP notes should be clear, well-written, and easy to follow so that your team can find the information they need.

What to Include in a SOAP Note

S-Subjective

Subjective means personal and not measurable. The S section is the place to report anything the client says or feels that is relevant to their session or case. This includes any report of limitations, concerns, and problems. Often living situations and personal history (ex. PMH or Occupational Profile) are also included in the S section. [NOTE: This does not include any answers to an evaluation or screening such as pain scale.]

Ex. Client reported _____________ problem, feeling, action, etc.

O-Objective

Objective means that it is measurable and observable. In this section, you will report anything you and the client did; scores for screenings, evaluations, and assessments; and anything you observed. The O section is for facts and data. The O section is NOT the place for opinions, connections, interpretations, etc.

The O section might begin with an introductory sentence outlining how long the session was.

Ex. Client participated in ____minute session in _______setting for skilled instruction/intervention in _____________.

Sometimes, the O section then gives an overview statement summarizing observations and client deficits. This is optional.

Ex. Client presents with ___________ (disease, disability, deficit, etc.).

Next is the most important part of the O section—what happened and what you observed. There are multiple ways to organize an O section.

Chronologically
1. This might be the easiest way to organize it, especially if you are new to SOAP notes.
2. Chronological order means you write what happened in the order it happened.
  1. Ex. First the client…..Second, the client…….Next, the client…..
3. If you organize it chronologically, make sure to include all treatments and relevant observations but remember that you do not have to include every detail of what happened.
Categorically
1. Categorical means organizing the O section according to categories of things that you and the client did or that you observed.
  1. Ex. Category/Deficit #1
    1. Example 1
    2. Example 2
  2. Category #2
    1. Example 3
    2. Example 4
2. If you organize it categorically, sometimes it is helpful to group things into broad categories because there may be overlap between one section and another.
Evaluation Findings
1. If the session was an evaluation, the SOAP note may look a little different
2. An evaluation SOAP note must include all scores from the eval. This could include:
  1. Summary of Screening results
  2. Assessment/Test/Evaluation results
  3. Pictures
  4. Observations during evaluation
3. Evaluation scores can be listed in bullet points or in paragraph form.
  1. Ex. Name of Assessment
    1. Category: Result
Observations
1. Sometimes it makes sense to incorporate observations throughout, but some people find it helpful to create a section in their O-section for observations.

A-Assessment

The A section is where you describe and explain why things happened and what might be going on. This is the appropriate place for informed opinions, theories, explanation, and (last but not least) interpretations! The most important thing to remember is that the A section is where you make sense of what you wrote in the O section and S section. It should not include any new information, just like your O section should not include anything besides facts.

Many A sections include 3 P’s plus needs:

Problem or Cause-Effect statements
1. These statements provide an interpretation and explanations of patient’s problems, of evaluation findings, and of observations.
A statement of progress
1. Sometimes we can compare the scores or observations from our O section to what we have seen in the past.
2. This is important because someone reading your SOAP note now understands whether your O section shows the patient is making progress or not
A statement of potential
1. While it is easy to focus on the problems and issues, we also want to highlight things in the previous section that indicate the potential this client has.
2. This could include the client’s strengths, their support system, their attitude, etc.
A summary statement of needs
1. This is often a justification for services or a justification for discharge.

Example:

Problems: ______________(condition/deficit) causes client difficulty with ________________ (occupation).

Potential: Client shows rehab potential to make progress as indicated by ______________ (supports/client factors/ etc.).

Progress: Client demonstrated progress in _________ (during session or throughout therapy).

Justification of services: Client would benefit from skilled intervention/instruction focused on __________________________ (tasks/strategies for specific occupations).

P-Plan

The P section is where you answer “Now what?” Knowing the information from the sections above, write your suggestions for treatment, referrals, resources recommended, and discharge plans. For an initial eval session, this may also include long-term and short-term goals. Remember that all information in this section should connect back to your 3 P’s and Needs from your A section.

Example:

Continue tx ___min #x/wk for # wks to work on ____________ (intervention) for _____ (goal/occupations).

Referral to___________ recommended to address_______________.

Family provided with resources including _______________________.

SOAP Note Template

S- Subjective

Client reported _____________ problem, feeling, action, etc.

Client’s home situation or medical history if they share

O-Objective

Initial statement: Client participated in ____minute session in _______setting for skilled instruction/intervention in _____________.

What Client Did

What you observed

Assessment/Evaluation/Test results

A-Assessment

3 P’s and Needs

Problems: ______________(condition/deficit) causes client difficulty with ________________ (occupation).

Potential: Client shows rehab potential to make progress as indicated by ______________ (supports/client factors/ etc.).

Progress: Client demonstrated progress in _________ (during session or throughout therapy).

Needs/Justification of services: Client would benefit from skilled intervention/instruction focused on __________________________ (tasks/strategies for specific occupations).

P-Plan

Continue tx ___min #x/wk for # wks to work on ____________(skills/activities/intervention) for _____ (goal/occupations).

Referrals and Recommendations

OR Discharge plan

Example of an Initial Evaluation SOAP

S: Leo Smith is 3wks post R CVA. He reported no pain in arm throughout session, though he said his R arm felt tingly and twitched at night. He reported that he has two grandaughters who live with him and his wife, but he cannot care for them now. He is very ready to return to playing guitar for church. Client reported that he performs self-care activities well but struggles to put on jeans.

O: Client participated in 60-min initial eval session at outpatient rehab facility.

[Observations] Initial screening demonstrated flaccid hemiplegia of RUE-low muscle tone and limited AROM (only able to horizontally abduct his shoulder). Client had full PROM with some spasticity in fingers. Client also had weakness in RLE and limited ROM of ankle. Client’s sensation intact.

Evaluation Scores:

COPM

Caring for his granddaughters-performance 1; satisfaction 1
Playing music for church and fun- performance 1; satisfaction 1
Driving- performance 1; satisfaction 1
Doing household chores (trash, dishes, feeding cats)- performance 4; satisfaction 4
Work tasks- performance 5; satisfaction 4

DASH

39.1 (overall) –some impairment
68.75 (work)- moderate impairment
75 (performing arts)-severe impairment

A: [Problem] R flaccid hemiplegia impairs client’s ability to perform bilateral activities such as caring for his granddaughters, playing guitar, pulling up jeans, and doing his freelance work. Limited motion in his RUE and limited ankle ROM of RLE prevent client from driving. DASH scores indicate some impairment during everyday ADLs and IADLs particularly those requiring two hands or lots of strength. DASH scores indicate moderate impairment of his work and severe impairment of performing arts because he plays guitar and is unable to strum with his right hand.

[Potential] Client demonstrates rehab potential by his ability to feel light touch and proprioception in his arm, by his positive attitude, and by having a strong social support system. His ability to complete activities with his L hand allows him to complete many ADLs and IADLs despite limitations.

[Progress] He has already demonstrated progress by regaining some movement in shoulder horizontal adduction since his stroke and some movement and weight-bearing in his R leg that allows for walking.

[Needs] Client would benefit from continued Occupational Therapy services to increase his participation in work, childcare, and music through adaptation of activities and through increasing his ability to use his RUE during bimanual tasks.

P: Continue tx 3/wk for 8 wks for skilled intervention to increase weight-bearing in RUE and RLE for driving, increase engagement of RUE during bimanual activities, increase AROM and strength of RUE through preparatory and occupation-based activities, and provide adaptive strategies for completing one-handed activities.

Referral for PT requested.

Re-evaluate COPM May 18.

Goals

LTG #1: C will play first verse of Amazing Grace on the guitar using adaptive pick and arm orthosis with set-up assistance by July 1, 2021.

STG #1: Client will play one verse of Amazing Grace on the guitar using adaptive pick and max A from his wife to move his R arm by third week.

STG #2: Client will successfully strum C then G cord using adaptive pick and arm orthosis 3/5 times by June 1.

References

Gateley, C & Borcherding, S. (2017). Documentation Manual for Occupational Therapy: Writing SOAP Notes (4th Ed.). Slack Incorporated.

Podder, V., Lew, V., & Ghassemzadeh, S. (2020). SOAP Notes. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482263/

Written by:

Amelia TaraJane House, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Summary

To summarize is to create a shortened version of an original source, using your own words. A summary only includes the main ideas and any basic information needed to understand those ideas.

What are the goals of a summary?

The goal of a summary is to give your reader a basic idea of what the original source says.

When writing a summary, your goal is to be economical, getting the necessary information across in relatively few words.

When do I summarize?

Summarize a source when your audience doesn’t need the amount of detail that the original source provides on a given subject.

Direct quotes should be used sparingly. When referencing other sources, it is better to paraphrase or summarize as much as possible.

Summary, paraphrase, and direct quote: what’s the difference?

Paraphrasing is restating information from a source in your own words. A paraphrase is usually the same length as the original passage. Passages that are paraphrased are usually shorter than those that are summarized.

Quoting is directly restating someone else’s exact words. Unlike a summary, you do not rephrase or shorten the original passage.

Tips for a Good Summary

A summary should be economical, conveying the necessary information in as few words as possible.
A summary should be objective, avoiding value judgments or analysis.
A summary should be clearly cited, with the source of the information referenced. This is often done with a brief introduction of the author or source text, along with an in-text citation.

Strategies for Writing Summaries

Start by summarizing the single main idea or argument of a source. Then add any specific information, explanations, or context that is necessary to understand this idea.
To avoid directly quoting a source, try restructuring sentences or replacing key words with synonyms.
To remain objective, avoid using language that compliments or critiques your source or its author.
Avoid cutting crucial information. Your reader should be able to understand the information presented in hour writing without reading the original source.

Sample Summaries

Original Text

“The vast majority of adults—at least 85 to 90 percent—will tell you that they dream. But we recall only a fraction of what we dream about. People can dream in all sleep stages; so we’re immersed in various forms of dreaming for at least two-thirds of the night, and some researchers would even say we dream all night long. If you’re one of those lucky souls who falls asleep quickly and sleeps soundly through the night, it’s unlikely that you recall even 5 percent—20 minutes—of those dreams, and most commonly it’s the dream you were having right before waking up.”

Summary

Although most adults dream for much of the night, they only remember a small portion of their dreams.

Original Text

“Virtually all dreams have a narrative structure and contain the dreamer as an active participant. They are typically experienced from an embodied, first-person perspective. Yet we’re rarely alone in our dreams. Most dreams contain at least two other characters. About half of our dream characters are familiar to us—relatives, friends, colleagues, or acquaintances—while the other half are unknown, including strangers and people identified solely by their occupational role, such as policemen, doctors, or teachers.”

Summary

Dreams tend to feature the dreamer, follow story arcs, and contain a cast of known and unknown characters.

Resources

Bullock, Richard H., et al. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings and Handbook. 5th ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2019.

“Summarizing.” Purdue Writing Lab, Purdue University, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/english_as_a_second_language/esl_students/paraphrasing_and_summary/summarizing.html.

“Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing.” Purdue Writing Lab, Purdue University, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/quoting_paraphrasing_and_summarizing/index.html.

Zadra, Robert and Stickgold, Robert. “Theater of the Mind.” Psychology Today, 5 Jan. 2021, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/202101/theater-the-mind.

Written by:

Mackenzie McGee, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Synthesis Paper

Synthesis, or synthesizing, is a mode of writing that groups various sources together in a way that makes the relationships between the sources clear. Usually, these sources revolve around the same subject.

When to Use Synthesis

The mode of synthesis is used in any cohesive writing that engages multiple outside sources. Essays employing synthesis include documented arguments, research papers, literature reviews, explanatory/informative syntheses, argumentative syntheses, and so on.

What is a synthesis essay?

The synthesis essay can be broken into two categories: explanatory/informative syntheses and argumentative syntheses. While both syntheses use multiple sources in order to discuss a subject from many angles, an explanatory synthesis has the goal to understand a perspective or a rational about the subject and an argumentative synthesis has the goal to make a claim about the subject.

Explanatory syntheses are researched, informative, well-rounded/broad, and have an objective/impartial tone.
- Write an explanatory synthesis essay when the goal of the writing task is to impart unbiased information, not make a critique or argue a claim.
Argumentative syntheses are also researched, informative, well-rounded/broad, but make a clear argument/claim.
- Write an argumentative synthesis essay when the goal of the writing task is to make a claim, not merely inform.

Goals of a Synthesis Essay

To share information from multiple sources in order to write thoroughly and accurately on a subject.
To use reputable (peer-reviewed or scholarly) sources to ensure the accuracy of the content of the synthesis.

Synthesis Essay Tips

When using multiple sources, it may be hard to maintain your own authorial voice in your paper.

Tip: Maintain the focus of the essay on your subject and not your sources by paraphrasing ideas about your subject, gleaned from your sources. The sources only need to be your researched support––a footnote or in-text citation––and not the star of the sentence/paragraph. Rather, the subject and its ideas are the star.

When using multiple sources, it’s important to use signal phrases and citations to make it clear who said what, where the information came from, and avoid plagiarism.

Tip: Use trusted sites and style handbooks as a guide for all of your citations.

Other Resources

For help with citations, the Writing Studio offers MLA, APA 7, and Chicago Style guides and the OWL of Purdue website offers many style guides, as well.

For help with paraphrasing and signal phrasing, check out the Writing Studio’s Student Resource listed above.

Additional help with syntheses can be found at the OWL of Purdue’s Synthesizing Sources, the University of Arizona’s Global Campus’s Synthesis, and The Writing Center of Princeton’s Synthesis Essays: A Step-by-Step How-To Guide.

References

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed., Bedford/St. Martins, 2015.

Synthesizing Sources. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2021, https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/research_overview/synthesizing_sources.html.

Written by:

Madeline Vardell, Writing Studio Consultant, 2021

Writing Tips

Choppy Sentences

What are "choppy" sentences?

If a draft has too many short sentences in a row, then it can feel “choppy” to read. Consider the difference between these two paragraphs:

Choppy

Small sentences are boring to read. Many of them strung together look bad. They appear simple. This can make your thoughts look simple, too. It's like you can't sustain an idea for more than a few words. You can think in only trivial, simplistic ways. Small thoughts seem to come from small minds. You could leave your reader with the impression of simplemindedness. Is that what you want?

Smooth

Small sentences are boring to read and, in fact, many of them strung together look bad because they can appear simple. If your thoughts look simple, it will seem like you can't sustain an idea for more than a few words and can think in only trivial, simplistic ways. Since small thoughts seem to come from small minds, you could leave your reader with the impression of simplemindedness. Is that what you want?¹

Jesse Ventura, the former governor of Minnesota, has denied an interest in running for the senate.

Another way is by simply restructuring your prose to provide multiple pieces of information in fewer sentences.

Example

The boy asked his father a question. The boy is five years old. The question was about death.

Revision

The five-year-old boy asked his father a question about death.

Remember: short sentences are not necessarily bad. But, just as with the sentences that we speak, we want to make sure that the sentences we write vary in length. Sometimes, that means that our sentences will be long and descriptive. And, sometimes, they’ll be short!

Works Consulted

Commas

Addresses, Cities, States, and Nations

Use commas to separate street name, city, and state.

Mariah lives at 2601 Main Street, Memphis, Tennessee 37501.

Use a comma to set off cities, states, and countries.

The city of Joplin, Missouri, is the birthplace of poet Langston Hughes.

International singing superstar Edith Piaf was born in Paris, France, and raised in a brothel.

Compound Sentences

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, yet, so, for, or, nor) that joins two independent clauses in a compound sentence.

The engineer designed a new nanosensor to detect brain injuries, and he is applying for a patent.

The students said they benefited from classroom discussion, but many had poor attendance.

A comma is not needed before every coordinating conjunction. In the following example, the conjunction joins two verb phrases, not two independent clauses, so no comma is needed.

The ice storm of 2009 downed power lines and damaged many mature trees around campus.

Coordinate Adjectives

Use a comma between coordinate (equal) adjectives. To test for equal adjectives, insert the word and between the modifiers. If the insertion does not alter meaning or create awkwardness, the modifiers are equal and should be separated with a comma.

The Mississippi is a deeper, wider river than the Red.

Jay could not see that Daisy was a self-centered, egotistical socialite.

Dates

Use a comma to set off the year in a full date. Do not use a comma for month and year only.

Samuel Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, was born November 30, 1835, in Florida, Missouri.

Isaac’s dissertation defense is scheduled for Friday, March 11, 2016.

Twain predicted his passing would come in April 1910 with the return of Halley’s Comet.

Direct Address & Interjections

Use a comma with interjections and statements of direct address.

Yes, we expect students to register early this year for the fall workshop series.

Dr. Wilson, we hope the department will consider our committee’s proposal.

Introductory Elements

Use a comma following a subordinate clause, participial phrase, infinitive phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb that precedes the main clause in a sentence.

When Blake completed his honors thesis, Professor Davis helped him select a graduate program.

Arriving late for physiology, Ethan found the classroom door locked.

To improve her stamina, Caroline began swimming laps in the university pool.

In some instances, writers overlook the comma preceding an introductory phrase.

However, you can keep this handout nearby as a quick reference.

Items in a Series

Use a comma between each item in a series of three or more items. The final comma, required in most style formats is also known as the Oxford comma.

Politico, Gizmodo, and The Huffington Post are three popular blog sites.

John is working on the following issues: punctuating clauses, using parallelism, and citing sources.

Modifying Phrases & Clauses

Use commas to set off modifying phrases and clauses that do not add essential information, also known as nonrestrictive modifiers. Restrictive modifiers add essential information and do not take commas.

The students, who had a review session last Thursday, are taking the final exam this afternoon.

The students who are nominated for scholarships sit in the front row of the auditorium.

Restrictive or non-restrictive? Read your sentence without the modifier. If the essential meaning is preserved, it is nonrestrictive. If the sentence becomes unclear without the modifier, it is restrictive.

Numbers

Place commas after every third digit in a number.

The survey sample was 10,450 undergraduates enrolled in six colleges.

Parenthetical Expressions

Use a comma to set off transitional phrases and words, tag questions, and statements of contrast.

The debate last week, however, was so raucous that fights broke out.

The City Council meeting, on the other hand, was civilized and calm.

The faculty’s first responsibility is to the students, isn’t it?

Roxie treated JoBeth as her daughter, not as an employee.

Quotations

Use a comma to introduce or conclude a quotation (exceptions follow).

Dr. Johnson said, “Today we announce the interim department director.”

“Some Tennessee biology teachers were fearful of the Monkey Law,” wrote Keith.

Do not use a comma if the signal phrase ends with the word that. When the language introducing a quotation forms a complete sentence, use a colon, not a comma.

Mason Keller argues that “solar energy will soon replace our fossil fuel portfolio.”

Dr. Johnson urged all in attendance to embrace the new initiative: “We trust all members of our parent organization to help promote the department, the curriculum, and the leadership.”

Titles

Place commas after the person's name and title.

The first honoree of the evening was William Demarest, Ph.D., our graduate advisor.

Concise Writing

Repetition, filler phrases, clichés, and empty words can turn your prose into a briar patch. Leave time during proofreading to find and prune wordy outgrowths. Readers will appreciate how clearly your concise writing conveys ideas. This handout describes common issues and ways to repair them.

Cut the Redundant

Many words and phrases repeat an idea and can be cut:

Redundant Phrase	Change To
each and every	each
basic and fundamental	basic
first and foremost	first
big in size	big
few in number	few
sufficient enough	sufficient
honest in character	honest
plan in advance	plan
general concensus	consensus
my personal opinion	my opinion
blue in color	blue
final outcome	outcome
most optimal	optimal
totally devoid of	devoid of

Cut the Wordy

Some phrases are better expressed in one word:

Wordy Phrase	Change To
the reason for	reason
is possible that	may
a large proportion of	most
not many	few
take into consideration	consider
in the event that	if
was of the opinion that	thought
for the purpose of	for
not allow	prevent
in the not too distant future	soon
are in a position to	can
in spite of the fact that	although
prior to	before
made a statement saying	stated
at the present time	now
at all times	always
not often	rarely
at the point in time	then
engaged in an evaluation	evaluating
the transportation of	transporting

Cut the Filler

Cut words that add nothing to the sentence: some words are only filler.

Filler

Club sports are basically individual student-led teams who practice in their particular sports and compete against various other club teams from their given colleges.

Common filler words:

absolutely
certain
various
really
interesting
virtually
quite
given
actually
awfully
basically
definitely
generally

Concise

Club sports are student-led teams who practice and compete against other college-level club teams.

Independent Clause Errors

This guide identifies the common errors with linking independent clauses and then describes the five most common techniques for correcting these errors.

Comma Splice

The term comma splice refers to the linking of two independent clauses with a comma alone, a punctuation error. An independent clause is a construction with a subject and predicate, one that could stand alone as a complete thought.

Error

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America, many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.

A comma splice usually occurs when we sense a relationship between two ideas. The relationship above is one of cause and result—the rise in obesity has caused many parents to monitor what their kids eat. But the comma alone is not the correct way to link the ideas in the two clauses. See below for the correct methods.

Revision

While proofreading your work, be on the lookout for this error. If you think you’ve found a comma splice but do not feel certain, try taking the two ideas apart to determine whether each could stand alone as a sentence:

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America.
Many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.

Each sentence is an independent clause with a subject and predicate so may not be linked with a comma alone.

Fused Sentence

The term fused sentence describes two or more independent clauses run together with no punctuation or coordinating conjunction, a grammatical error. Some handbooks call this a run-on sentence, but The St. Martin’s Handbook, used in composition class at the University of Arkansas, makes no distinction between the terms.

Error

In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy his work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

This error also occurs when we include the conjunction but forget the punctuation:

In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy and his work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Revision

Each clause can stand alone as a sentence, so we have a fused sentence.

In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy.
His work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Correcting Independent Clause Errors

Use a Comma

Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America, so many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.
In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy, and his work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Make Two Sentences

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America. Many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.
In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy. His work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Use a Dependent Clause

Recast one independent clause as a dependent clause by introducing it with a subordinating conjunction (such as although, because, after).

Because childhood obesity is on the rise in America, many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.
After Thomas Paine advocated independence from the corrupt British monarchy in Common Sense, he wrote his work The Age of Reason, in which he criticized churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Use Semicolons

Use a semicolon between the two independent clauses.

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America; many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.
In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy; his work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

Add a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (such as however, also, besides) or transitional expression, and then a comma to link the clauses.

Childhood obesity is on the rise in America; consequently, many parents are beginning to set tougher dietary guidelines for their kids.
In Common Sense, Thomas Paine advocates independence from the corrupt British monarchy; in addition, his work The Age of Reason criticizes churches as institutions designed “to terrify and enslave mankind.”

NOTE: Experienced writers sometimes use comma splices, run-ons, fused sentences, and even sentence fragments for effect. Good writers who use them have consciously chosen these constructions and have carefully considered the effect these nonstandard constructions will have on their audiences.

Practice writing correct sentence forms, and proofread your papers carefully for punctuation errors. Once you master these techniques and know how to construct a correct sentence effortlessly, you might consider using nonstandard punctuation for effect. But beware: you must first demonstrate to your composition instructor that you have mastered the rules before you consider bending them.

Works Consulted

Manchester, William. “Depression.” Forging the American Character: Readings in United States History Since 1865. 2nd ed. Ed. John R. M. Wilson. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1997. 130-41. Print.

Paine, Thomas. Common Sense. Philadelphia: W. & T. Bradford, 1776. Project Gutenberg.org. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Web. 28 July 2016.

----. The Writings of Thomas Paine: The Age of Reason - Part I and II. Ed. Moncure Daniel Conway. 1796. Project Gutenberg.org. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Web. 28 July 2016.

Introductions and Conclusions

Introductions

An effective introduction secures the reader’s attention, introduces the topic, and identifies the argument of the paper. Introduction length varies by genre and by length of the final essay. In most instances, your thesis or claim will come later in the introductory paragraph or passage.

If you have difficulty starting your introduction, remember that you can compose the introduction after you write and revise the body paragraphs. Several of the many approaches to writing an introduction follow.

Patterns for Introductions

Familiarize your audience with the topic under the debate. Provide the reader with background and context surrounding the controversy before you present your own argument.
To establish common ground, connect your topic with issues or experiences that concern your target audience. For example, if your essay argues for a ban on cell phone use while driving, you could appeal to the audience’s related concerns about driving safety.
Define a key term that you will use throughout your paper. Take care to do more than provide a dictionary definition, which any reader can find on the open Web in seconds. Instead, provide an extended definition specific to the context of your topic and discussion.
Begin with a relevant quotation. Like the last method, beginning with a quotation requires care. Your quotation should have a direct connection to the discussion or topic, and your introduction should make that connection clear. (Avoid Googling general lists of quotations vaguely related to your topic: not a good idea.)
Narrate an anecdote for your audience. If you have personal experience with the topic at hand, you may want tell the brief story and show how it influences your argument. Personal anecdote is only appropriate for some writing genres.
Begin by asking a question or identifying a problem. This technique is useful if your thesis statement (and paper) answers the question or proposes a solution to the problem.
State your opinion or argument at the beginning of the introduction. This method works well if what you are arguing is controversial or unique, and you need to clarify your position immediately.

Introduction Examples

Important: University of Arkansas students can access the hyperlinks that follow from any PC on the campus network. Off-campus students can access the links by first logging in to the University Libraries.

This introduction identifies the topic, provides brief background, and establishes the ongoing controversy.
In the article titled “Toxic Tears: The Darker Side of the Green Revolution,” the author develops an extended definition of Green Revolution to make clear his use of the term.
An epigraph is a quotation set off from the main text. This article uses an epigraph before the introduction. Note how the writer immediately connects the Roosevelt quotation to the debate.
This article begins with an anecdote.
This student written scientific article introduces a widespread problem in the first paragraph, defines several key terms in the second, and presents her research as a solution to aspect of the problem.
This two-paragraph introduction to an undergraduate study opens with a question in the first paragraph and presents in the second paragraph the “aim of the study” as the answer to the question.

Conclusions

An effective conclusion leaves your audience with something to think about and reminds them why the issue matters. Often the conclusion sums up the argument and main points. Consideration of audience and genre should guide your approach to making an effective final impression.

Patterns for Conclusions

Restate your thesis statement and summarize your main ideas. This method is employed in longer papers to remind your audience of connections between major lines of argument. In shorter papers the approach can seem redundant.
Present the implications of your paper. Identify and discuss any areas you consider important for future investigation or research.
Propose a course of action for your audience. This pattern is effective when you argue for change because you provide the audience a practical way to enact the change.
Narrate an anecdote for your conclusion. You can finish a story you began earlier in the essay or relate how your experiences illustrate your main point.
Refer back to your introduction by adding to or changing the original. If you asked a question in the introduction, the conclusion could restate the question and provide your new answer. If you framed a debate, you could argue finally for a firm position or side.
For evaluative essays, use your conclusion to judge whether your sources are essentially negative or positive. This type of conclusion works especially well for essays that rely on analysis of text or information.

Conclusion Examples

The conclusion of this paper summarizes the researcher’s major results and describes how the study could be improved.
Scroll down to the section titled “Conclusions” in this article to see a good example of the author discussing the implications of her findings for future research.
The final paragraph of this article calls the audience to action.
Read both the introduction and conclusion for this article. Although the conclusion is a brief paragraph, it refers to an influence the author identified in the introduction.

Works Consulted

Bullock, Richard and Francine Weinberg. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: Norton and Company, 2009. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2015. Print.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers. 8th ed. Eds. Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, and the University of Chicago Press Editorial Staff. Chicago: Chicago UP, 2013. Print.

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a central idea. In most essay writing genres, a good paragraph has a clear topic sentence, unity, coherence, and logical development. Writers may employ a variety of strategies when organizing a paragraph, but you should take care to include these basic elements in order to communicate effectively with your reader.

Here are some general expectations for effective paragraphing:

A topic sentence identifies for your readers the main idea of the paragraph.
A paragraph must be unified: all ideas included must be related.
A paragraph must be coherent: the sentences follow a clear and logical order.
A paragraph must have good development: your readers will expect evidence and support for the main idea presented in your topic sentence.
The end may summarize the content of the paragraph, draw the discussion to a close, or signal what is to come in the next paragraph.
A paragraph must be related to the paragraphs before and after. Using clear transitions and having a logical pattern of organization throughout are also important.

Paragraphs help guide readers through your paper. There are several reasons to begin a new paragraph: to introduce a new idea, to explore a subtopic in more depth, to emphasize a point, to transition between major sections, to change speakers (in papers where dialogue is included), and to conclude your paper.

The following sections provide an example paragraph for discussion, expand on the definitions key terms, and provide sample paragraphs that follow some common organizational strategies.

Example Effective Paragraph

Compare the paragraph below to the criteria listed above. This paragraph has a clear topic sentence and details that develop the main idea; it is unified since all the ideas are related and coherent since the sentences fit together in a logical order. A Writing Studio Consultant has commented on the paragraph’s strengths. (Text with an attached comment is bolded, and comments are marked with a number.)

Text

The state should offer free parenting classes, taught by experts, to anyone who wishes to become a parent (C1). First and most important, such parenting classes could save children’s lives. Every year (C2), over two million American children are hurt, maimed, or killed by their own parents, according to the National Physician’s Association. Some of these tragedies could be prevented by showing parents how to recognize and deal with their frustration and anger (C3). Next, good parenting skills do not come naturally, but must be learned. Dr. Phillip Graham (C4), chairman of England’s National Children’s Bureau, says that most parents have “no good role models” and simply parent the way they were parented. The courses would not only improve parenting skills but might also identify people at risk of abusing their children. Third (C5), critics might argue that the state has (C6) no business getting involved in parenting, which is a private responsibility. However, the state already makes decisions about who is a fit parent—in the courts, child protection services, and adoption agencies—but often this is too late for the well-being of the child. Finally, if we do nothing, the hidden epidemic of child abuse and neglect will continue. We train our children’s teachers, doctors, day-care workers, and bus drivers. We must also educate parents (C7). (Fawcett 161).

(Paragraph above from page 161 of Evergreen: A Guide to Writing with Readings, 10th edition, by Susan Fawcett.)

Analysis

C1: This is a good topic sentence. It is clear, direct, and contains a topic (parenting classes) and a claim about that topic (state should offer classes to people wishing to become parents).
C2: To first support the claim in the topic sentence, the writer introduces statistical evidence.
C3: The writer then makes an emotional appeal to the reader: by educating these people we could avoid “some of these tragedies.”
C4: Next, the writer uses an expert in the field to support her argument.
C5: Notice how this writer uses clear transitional elements between ideas in the paragraph (First, Next, Third, Finally).
C6: In her third point, the writer anticipates a potential counter-argument and provides a rebuttal in the sentence that follows.
C7: This paragraph is unified: All supporting ideas are related to the topic sentence. The writer does not include any extraneous details or commentary. It is coherent because the order of the information is logical and the use of transitional phrases is effective. By paragraph’s end, the writer has subtly moved the reader from a suggestion (notice the use of the word “should” in the first sentence) to a demand (notice the word “must” in the last sentence), an insistent call to action.

Topic Sentences

A topic sentence must be focused and specific. When writing persuasively, a topic sentence makes an argument or claim about a topic, and it must be supported by the other sentences in the paragraph. A good topic sentence includes mention of both the issue under discussion and a claim about that issue. A topic sentence may appear at the beginning of a paragraph, in the middle, or at the end; in rare cases, it may be implied rather than stated explicitly. In most of your academic papers for university writing assignments, you’ll write most clearly by beginning new paragraphs with topic sentences. Take a look at the example topic sentences below.

Weak

The state might consider offering some kind of classes for parents.

This topic sentence is unsuccessful because it is vague. What kind of classes should the state offer? Who will teach and attend these classes? In contrast to the topic sentence below, this sentence also is weak as a result of the writer’s use of the phrasing might consider offering.

Strong

The state should offer free parenting classes, taught by experts, to anyone who wishes to become a parent.

This topic sentence is specific. It has a topic: parenting classes; it also has a claim: the state should offer the classes to people wishing to become parents.

Unity

A good body paragraph is unified, which means that each idea in your paragraph is related to the topic sentence. In the example paragraph above, it would not be a good idea to include this sentence: Some parents who abuse children should be punished. The focus of the paragraph is not parents who abuse children and what to do about the parents’ behavior. The focus is on why parenting classes should be offered to people planning to have children. Make sure the sentences in the body of your paragraph are related to the idea in your topic sentence; do not allow unrelated details or commentary to creep in.

Coherence

For a paragraph to be coherent, all sentences must fit together in a logical order. There are a number of strategies for organizing your ideas within each paragraph. Three of the most common ways are (1) by order of importance, (2) from general to specific, and (3) from specific to general. When composing in genres other than persuasive writing, you might find other organizational strategies useful: spatial, chronological, or by association. You might also organize ideas using a logical pattern such as illustration, definition, or comparison and contrast. You can read more about these patterns in Chapter 5 of The St. Martin’s Handbook, 8th edition. Coherence also means that the paragraph “flows” well. Using transitional phrases within and between paragraphs can help you achieve stronger coherence.

Development

In order for a paragraph to be effective, it must contain evidence, support, and details, all related to the main idea in the topic sentence, as well as commentary on the evidence. Evidence can appear in a number of forms: examples, facts and statistics, summaries, and quotations from knowledgeable experts.

Take a look at this example:

The state should offer free parenting classes, taught by experts, to anyone who wishes to become a parent. First and most important, such parenting classes could save children’s lives. Next, good parenting skills do not come naturally, but must be learned. Third, critics might argue that the state has no business getting involved in parenting, which is a private responsibility. Finally, if we do nothing, the hidden epidemic of child abuse and neglect will continue.

Compared to the version on page one above, this paragraph is not developed. This paragraph has a clear topic sentence and transitions well between sentences, but it fails to develop support for the main idea with specific examples. Additionally, the author of this paragraph fails to provide commentary on the relevance of the points that she makes in this paragraph.

Organizational Strategies

Effectively organizing sentences within paragraphs helps your readers follow your ideas. The paragraphs below highlight four common patterns of development: order of importance, general to specific, specific to general, and chronological. This is by no means an exhaustive list: see Chapter 5 of The St. Martin’s Handbook for more examples.

Order of Importance

Following your topic sentence, your paragraph may begin with your most important and persuasive ideas. In this organizational strategy, you attempt to create impact and immediately grab the reader’s attention. The “most important first” strategy is effective for business communication, essay examinations, and establishing serious or overwhelming impact. In the sample paragraph that introduces this section, the writer employs this strategy, and even announces it to the reader by leading with “First and most important. . . .” The writer’s first point of persuasion is that by following her argument children’s lives could be saved. The writer’s other points—that good parenting skills are learned, that the state is already involved in other issues regarding parenting, and that doing nothing will perpetuate tragedy and abuse—are all persuasive but pale in impact to the argument that her proposal could save children’s lives.

You may also organize your points from least-to-most important. In this strategy, you trust that your reader stays with the development of your argument. You build to a kind of crescendo at paragraph’s end.

General-to-Specific Order

Another common pattern of development is to begin with a general idea and develop it throughout the paragraph. The example below utilizes this strategy. Ideas are organized from general to specific As the paragraph progresses, the writer becomes more specific by backing up claims with examples. The topic sentence (italicized), a general assertion, appears at the beginning of the paragraph, and the ideas that follow provide more specific details of support.

Meanwhile, the city’s rich musical heritage grew steadily richer. Brass bands captivated the whole country after the Civil War—virtually every small town in America boasted at least one—and the New Orleans “mania” for them that had been noted before the war seems only to have intensified afterwards. Citizens of every color and nationality continued to march to German bands, French bands, Irish bands, Italian bands (that highlighted a lyrical, ornamented clarinet style born in Sicily), and the regimental bands of the occupying forces, both black and white. When Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore, the master cornetist and bandleader who was as celebrated as John Philip Sousa in his day, presented a Grand National Concert at Lafayette Square, five hundred New Orleans brass players turned out to play with him. Every summer during the 1880s, a summer resort called West End, on Lake Pontchartrain just north of the city, played host to bands from all over the country with concerts day and night at which were played every kind of music from plantation ditties to operatic overtures, waltzes to so-called “coon songs.” (Ward and Burns 11)

(From page 11 of Jazz: A History of America’s Music, by Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns)

Specific-to-General Order

The example paragraph below illustrates another common pattern of development. The author begins with a series of specific examples to illustrate his point and builds to the topic sentence (italicized)--a general statement of the paragraph’s content that also wraps up or concludes the paragraph. Notice how the author also incorporates quoted material:

“Nobody is actually starving,” President Hoover told reporters. “The hoboes, for example, are better fed than they have ever been. One hobo in New York got ten meals in one day.” In September 1932 Fortune flatly called the President a liar and suggested that “twenty-five millions in want” might be a fairer description of the nation’s economic health. Cases of starvation were being chronicled by Fortune, the San Francisco Chronicle, the Atlantic, the New York Times, and in congressional testimony. The New York City Welfare Council reported 29 victims of starvation and 110, mostly children, dead of malnutrition. Hoover simply hadn’t seen the suffering, though he was not to be spared after his departure from the White House; on a fishing trip in the Rocky Mountains he was led by a native to a hut where one child had succumbed and seven others were dying of hunger. (Manchester 140)

(From page 140 of William Manchester’s “Depression,” in Forging the American Character, edited by John R. Wilson)

Chronological Order

In the paragraph below, the author uses a chronological pattern of development, organizing events sequentially. In a chronologically ordered paragraph, the topic sentence, which can appear at the beginning or the end, either summarizes the ideas of the paragraph or offers an interpretation of the ideas. The topic sentence here comes at the end and makes a general statement about the paragraph’s content:

Before the arrival of Europeans, Haiti was populated by the Arawak tribes. Within fifty years after Columbus set foot on the island in December 1492, the Arawaks had nearly died out, victims of disease and enslavement. The Spanish colonists imported blacks from Africa to replace the natives as slaves on their plantations. Late in the seventeenth century, the island was ceded to France but was the subject of dispute among England, Spain, and France for decades before achieving independence. The population of Haiti today, predominantly black and French-speaking, reflects that history. (Fulwiler and Hayakawa 344)

(From page 344 of The Blair Handbook)

Works Consulted

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2000. Print.

Fawcett, Susan. Evergreen: A Guide to Writing with Readings, 10th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2014. Print.

Fulwiler, Toby, and Alan R. Hayakawa. The Blair Handbook. Boston: Blair, 1994. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008. Print.

Manchester, William. “Depression,” Forging the American Character: Readings in United States History Since 1865. 2nd ed. Ed. John R. M. Wilson. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1997. 130-41. Print.

Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. Jazz: A History of America’s Music. Knopf, 2000. Print.

Parallelism

Parallelism occurs when when a writer joins two or more grammatical elements - words, phrases, or clauses - in grammatically balanced form. Maintaining parallel balance helps the reader to connect, coordinate, compare, and contrast ideas. Composing balanced parallel constructions contributes unity, coherence, and clarity to sentences. The repetition in longer constructions adds symmetry and rhythm.

Simplest Form

In its simplest form, parallelism pairs or groups individual words:

The Pacific is vast and deep.

Dr. Green's research group studies eagles, hawks, and falcons.

Parallelism in a Series

Parallelism can also involve a series of phrases:

On vacation, Valerie took side trips climbing mountains, hiking trails, and exploring caves.

Parallel constructions often join a series of clauses:

The experiment includes the following steps: (1) participants complete a demographic questionnaire; (2) participants view two product labels; (3) participants are asked five questions about product quality.

Correcting Faulty Parallelism

Paired or Grouped Elements

Faulty parallelism occurs when paired or grouped elements are not grammatically balanced. The resulting imbalance usually interrupts the flow of the sentence and distracts the reader.

Faulty

Dr. Black taught courses in painting, drawing, and to sculpt.

In the example above, the first two elements of the series are parallel - painting and drawing - but the third element - how to sculpt - upsets the pattern of -ing activities (two gerunds and one infinitive).

Revised

The solution is to present all three activities in the -ing form:

Dr. Black taught courses in painting, drawing, and sculpting.

Elements in a Series

To edit faulty parallelism, first identify all elements presented in series and then take the sentence apart. Arranging the parallel elements in a column will help identify any problems:

Faulty

During a visit to Santa Cruz, Joy enjoyed eating sushi, fished for perch, and playing arcade games on the pier.

During a visit to Santa Cruz, Joy enjoyed,

eating sushi,

fished for perch, and

playing arcade games on the pier

When arranged as above, the faulty parallelism is easier to spot. The initial words describing activities - eating, fished, playing - has a problem: fished.

Revised

Changing fished to fishing creates parallel balance:

During a visit to Santa Cruz, Joy enjoyed eating sushi, fishing for perch, and playing arcade games on the pier.

Paired Elements with Conjunctions

The same approach can be used with paired elements connected by correlative conjunctions:

Faulty

Joy planned not only to run on the nature trails but also go get a workout at the gym.

First, separate the pairing from the sentence, then arrange the paired elements in a column, beginning each with its correlative conjunction:

Joy planned

(not only) to run on the nature trails

(but also) go get a workout at the gym.

In the example above, the second of these elements - go get - is not parallel with the first - to run.

Revised

The second is changed to an infinitive to balance with the first:

Joy planned not only to run on the nature trails but also to work out at the gym.

When using correlative conjunctions, we sometimes misplace them in the sentence. Making a simple change often corrects the problem:

Faulty

Tired from hiking, Joy told Max she would neither join him for supper nor a walk.

(neither) join him for supper

(nor) a walk

The first element - join him for supper - is a verb, object, and prepositional phrase; the second element - a walk - is a noun.

Revised

If we simply move neither, then the parallel balance is established:

Tired from hiking, Joy told Max she would join him for neither supper nor a walk.

(neither) supper

(nor) a walk

Ideas in Pairs

The relationship between paired ideas is reinforced when the elements are presented in parallel balance. The three primary methods of connecting paired ideas are (1) with a coordinating conjunction; (2) with a pair of correlative conjunctions; (3) with a work signaling a comparison.

Pairing with Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect closely related or equivalent ideas. The relationship is made clearer when elements linked by a conjunction (and, but, or, for, so, yet) are presented in parallel balance:

"How could intelligent being seek to control a few unwanted species by a method that contaminated the entire environment and brought the threat of disease and death even to their own kind?"₁

"Have we fallen into a mesmerized state that makes us accept as inevitable that which is inferior or detrimental, as though having lost the will or the vision to demand that which is good?"₂

Pairing with Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions join equivalent elements and come in pairs:

both ... and
either ... or
just as ... so
neither ... nor
not only ... but also
whether ... or

"There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights."₃

"We will have to repent in this generation not merely for the vitriolic words and actions of the bad people, but for the appalling silence of the good people."₄

Comparisons Connected by Than or As

Parallel balance should be maintained between elements linked in comparisons using than or as:

"'Tis better to have loved and lost / than never to have loved at all."

Ideas in a Series

Clauses

"But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate - we cannot consecrate - we cannot hallow - this round."₁₀

Nouns and Noun Phrases

"But the value meals, two-for-one deals, and free refills of soda give a distorted sense of how much fast food actually costs."₆

Adjectives

"Mr. Gore was proud, ambitious, and persevering. He was artful, cruel, and obdurate."₇

Prepositional Phrases

"Rolled away under his desk, I found a blanket; under the empty gate, a blacking box and brush; on a chair, a tin basin with soap and a ragged towel; in a newspaper, a few crumbs of ginger-nuts and a morsel of cheese."₉

Verbs and Verb Phrases

"Ivan Ilyich went out slowly, seated himself disconsolately in his sledge, and drove home."₈

Bibliography

₁Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring. (Mariner Books Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962. 8.

₂Ibid., 12.

₃ King, Martin Luther, Jr. "I Have a Dream," in Back to the Lake: A Reader for Writers, edited by Thomas Cooley. New York: Norton, 2009. 519.

₄ King, Martin Luther, Jr. "Letter from a Birmingham Jail." 16 April 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers Project. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University. Accessed July 5, 2016.

₅ Tennyson, Alfred Lord. "In Memoriam A. H. H. OBIIT MDCCCXXXIII: 27." Poetry Foundation. Accessed July 14, 2016. http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems/detail/45336

₆Schlosser, Eric. "What We Eat," in Back to the Lake: A Reader for Writers, edited by Thomas Cooley. New York: Norton, 2009. 613.

₇ Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, in The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Vol. E (3rd ed.), edited by Martin Puchner. New York: Norton, 2012. 245.

₈ Tolstoy Leo. "The Death of Ivan Ilyich," in The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Vol. E (3rd ed.), edited by Martin Puchner. New York: Norton, 2012. 747.

₉ Melville, Herman. "Bartleby, the Scrivener," in The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Vol. E (3rd ed.), edited by Martin Puchner. New York: Norton, 2012. 307.

₁₀Lincoln, Abraham. "The Gettysburg Address." The Essential Abraham Lincoln. Gramercy: New York, 1993.

Passive Voice

What is voice?

Voice indicates the role of the agent in the sentence. In the active voice, the agent performs the action, and the recipient receives the action. The grammar terms often used for agent and recipient are subject and direct object.

Active

Our committee (agent) posted flyers (recipient).

The biologist (agent) performed the experiment (recipient).

Passive

In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb; the subject is acted upon.

passive: Flyers were posted by our committee.

passive: The experiment was performed by the biologist.

The verb’s past participle is combined with a form of to be, and the agent is usually identified in a prepositional phrase beginning with by. In some cases, the agent is not identified.

passive = to be (or a form of to be1) + past participle

Choosing a Voice

Active

In most writing situations, active voice is preferred over passive voice for the following reasons:

places the agent performing action in the subject position
emphasizes the role of the agent over the role of the recipient
makes the sentence more concise and direct
propels the action forward—gives prose momentum

Passive

In some situations, passive voice is considered a suitable alternative (examples follow):

recipient is purposefully emphasized
agent is purposefully de-emphasized or left unmentioned, as in scientific writing
agent is unknown or unimportant
agent is obvious or commonly known

Examples

The Post-It Note was invented in 1974 by 3-M’s Arthur Fry.
Three hundred test subjects were given the treatment over a thirty-day period.
The tourists were taken hostage and held for three weeks
George Bush was elected in 2004.

Active voice is used most of the time. Passive voice, used less frequently, has its purposes.

Changing Between Voices

Writers sometimes cast sentences in the passive voice when they should use active. When revising your papers, leave time to check for unnecessary use of passive voice. If you need to change a sentence from passive to active voice, follow these steps:

identify the action
find the agent who performs the action
rewrite the sentence with the agent in the subject position

Examples

Passive Sentence	Action	Agent	Active Sentence
The new garden was planted by Samantha.	plant	Samantha	Samantha planted the new garden.
The tornado damage was surveyed by the insurance adjuster.	survey	the insurance adjuster	The insurance adjuster surveyed the tornado damage.

Works Consulted

Bullock, Richard and Francine Weinberg. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Handbook. 2^nded. New York: Norton, 2009. Print.

Lester, Mark, and Larry Beason. The McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage. 2^nded. New York: McGraw Hill, 2013. Print.

Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun in a sentence, and the noun the pronoun replaces is the antecedent. Antecedents should be clear; pronouns must agree with antecedents in person, number, and gender. The following situations cause problems but can be corrected using the strategies shown.

Ambiguous or Vague Reference

Readers have difficulty when a direct reference cannot be drawn between the pronoun and antecedent.

Ambiguous/Vague	Correction
The sophomores and juniors took the new test. They improved by 10%.	The sophomores and juniors took the new test. The juniors improved 10%. The sophomores and juniors took the new test. Both classes improved 10%.
The patient’s height, weight, blood pressure, and social security number were recorded. This was stored on the confidential hospital server.	The patient’s height, weight, blood pressure, and social security number were recorded. This protected personal information was stored on the confidential hospital server.
During the rally, protesters threw eggs at the candidate, which angered supporters.	During the rally, protesters threw eggs at the candidate, an action which angered supporters.
Dr. Falk’s surgical procedure, which includes a new type of stent, is cutting-edge; it is currently being used in Sweden.	Dr. Falk’s cutting-edge surgical procedure is currently being used in Sweden, and he has developed and new type of stent for it.

Gender Bias and Agreement Errors

Gender bias problems arise when the writer uses he, him, his, or himself for an antecedent that could be male or female. In order to not assume gender, use the singular they as your pronoun unless you are sure of the subjects chosen pronouns. Agreement errors also occur with they, their, and them when not used with the correct form on the verb (singular vs. plural).

Error	Correction
A student reviews the catalog before he registers for classes.	A student reviews the catalog before they register for classes. Students review the catalog before they register for classes. Before registering for classes, students should review the catalog.

Who, Which, and That

Most style guides reserve the relative pronoun who for people (or an animal with a name) and the pronouns which and that for animals and things.

Error	Correction
James is the student that has written the most about global warming issues.	James is the student who has written the most about global warming issues.
Ellen works at the shelter with dogs, who are my favorite animals.	Ellen works at the shelter with dogs, which are my favorite animals. Ellen took good care of Bowser, who is the neighbor’s Labrador puppy.

Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun represents a person or a thing, generally or indefinitely. Indefinite pronouns are usually singular (everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, nobody) though some are plural (all, both, many, most several, some). These pronouns must agree in number with their verbs, nouns, and other pronouns.

Error	Correction
Everyone need to bring a three-page draft for peer review	Everyone needs to bring a three-page draft for peer review.
All took pride in his work.	All took pride in their work.

Informal Use of You and They

While speaking informally, writers sometimes use the pronouns you, it, and they in a manner that it is too relaxed for written communication.

Error	Correction
Poll tax laws often intentionally made voting more difficult for black citizens. If you went to the polls and could not pay the tax, you could not vote.	Poll tax laws often intentionally made voting more difficult for black citizens. If black voters went to the polls and could not pay the tax, then they could not vote.
On the new SAT, they ask a lot of language questions.	The new SAT has many language questions.

Pronoun Number and Antecedent

Pronoun number is determined by antecedent; singular pronouns refer to singular nouns, plural to plural.

Error	Correction
Following the storm, the agency worked hard to reunite dogs with its owners.	Following the storm, the agency worked hard to reunite dogs with their owners.
June and Jared practiced his routine.	June and Jared practiced their routine.

Some special situations create challenges.

Error	Correction
Each shark and each dolphin were tracked by their radio transmitter.	Each shark and each dolphin were tracked by its radio transmitter.
Neither the house nor the garage remained on their foundation following the tornado.	Neither the house nor the garage remained on its foundation following the tornado.

Collective nouns (e.g., jury, team, flock) take a singular pronoun when members act as a unit and a plural pronoun when members act individually:

Error	Correction
The committee decided to make public their meeting summaries.	The committee decided to make public its meeting summaries.
During summer months, the committee held virtual meetings and cast its votes online.	During summer months, the committee held virtual meetings and cast their votes online.

Works Consulted

Bullock, Richard, and Francine Weinberg. The Norton Field Guide to Writing with Handbook. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2009. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. The St. Martin’s Handbook. 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2015. Print.